Unit 3: Vijayanagar Kingdom and South India

1. Emergence and Growth of Vijayanagar Empire (1336–1565)

The Vijayanagar Empire constitutes a glorious chapter in the history of medieval India. Established as a stronghold of Hinduism against the expanding power of Islam in the Deccan, it served as a barrier against invasion from the north for over two centuries.

A. Foundation and Origin Theories

• Date: Founded in 1336 AD.
• Founders: Harihara I and Bukka Raya I (sons of Sangama).
• Inspiration: They were inspired by Saint Vidyaranya and Sayana to establish an independent kingdom to protect Hindu Dharma.
• Location: South bank of the Tungabhadra River. The capital was named Vijayanagara (City of Victory), later identified with modern Hampi.
• Background: Harihara and Bukka originally served under the Kakatiyas of Warangal and later the Kampili kingdom before being imprisoned by Muhammad bin Tughlaq. They converted to Islam but later reconverted to Hinduism to found the empire.

B. The Four Dynasties

The history of the empire is divided into four ruling dynasties:

1. Sangama Dynasty (1336–1485): Founded by Harihara and Bukka.
2. Saluva Dynasty (1485–1505): Founded by Saluva Narasimha.
3. Tuluva Dynasty (1505–1570): Founded by Vira Narasimha; included the greatest ruler, Krishnadevaraya.
4. Aravidu Dynasty (1570–1646): Ruled after the fall of the capital, primarily from Penukonda and Chandragiri.

C. Political History and Growth

1. The Sangama Period (Expansion)

• Harihara I and Bukka I: Consolidated authority over the Tungabhadra-Krishna doab. Conflict with the Bahmani Sultanate began during this period over control of the Raichur Doab (fertile land between Krishna and Tungabhadra rivers) and the diamond mines of Golconda.
• Devaraya II (1422–1446): The greatest ruler of the Sangama dynasty. He inducted Muslims into his army to modernize it (archery and cavalry) and collected tribute from Sri Lanka. He held the title Gajabetekara (Hunter of Elephants).

2. The Tuluva Period (Zenith)

• Krishnadevaraya (1509–1529): Considered the greatest ruler of Vijayanagar and one of the most famous kings in Indian history.
  • Military Conquests: He defeated the Bahmani Sultan (Mahmud Shah), the Sultan of Bijapur (Ismail Adil Shah), and the Gajapatis of Odisha. He recovered the Raichur Doab.
  • Relations with Portuguese: He maintained friendly relations with the Portuguese (Albuquerque) to secure the supply of horses.
  • Cultural Golden Age: His court was adorned by the Ashtadiggajas (eight great Telugu poets). He authored Amuktamalyada (Telugu) and Jambavati Kalyanam (Sanskrit).

3. Decline and Fall

• Aliya Rama Raya: The de facto ruler during the reign of Sadashiva Raya. He played the Deccan Sultanates against each other, which eventually led to a unified alliance against Vijayanagar.
• Battle of Talikota (1565): Also known as the Battle of Rakshasa-Tangadi.
  • Combatants: The United Front of Deccan Sultanates (Bijapur, Ahmednagar, Golconda, and Bidar) vs. Vijayanagar (led by Rama Raya).
  • Outcome: Vijayanagar was decisively defeated. Rama Raya was executed. The city of Hampi was sacked, looted, and destroyed over several months.
  • Aftermath: The empire continued under the Aravidu dynasty but never recovered its former glory.

2. Administration

The Vijayanagar administration was a highly centralized monarchy with unique feudal elements. It blended existing Tamil (Chola) traditions with new systems to manage a vast territory.

A. Central Administration

• The King: Absolute authority but governed according to Dharma Shastras. Advised by a Council of Ministers.
• Succession: Hereditary, though usurpation occurred (Saluva and Tuluva usurpations).
• Secretariat: A large bureaucracy maintained records.

B. Provincial Administration (Nayankara System)

This was a defining feature of the Vijayanagar polity.

• Nayanakas (Amara-Nayakas): Military chiefs or captains who held lands granted by the king.
• Role:
  • They collected taxes from their territory.
  • A portion was retained for personal use and maintaining a standing army (horses/elephants/foot soldiers).
  • The remainder was remitted to the central treasury.
  • They were required to provide military assistance to the King during war.
• Nature: Unlike the Iqta system, Nayakas had greater autonomy but could be transferred or punished by the King.

C. Local Administration (Ayagar System)

This system organized village administration.

• Structure: Every village was a separate unit managed by a body of 12 functionaries known as Ayagars.
• Functionaries: Included the village headman (Reddi/Gauda), accountant (Karnam), watchman, blacksmith, carpenter, etc.
• Payment: They were granted tax-free lands (Manyams) which they held in perpetuity.
• Power: No property transfer could take place without the permission of the Ayagars.

D. Revenue and Economy

• Land Revenue: The main source of income.
• Assessment: Land was carefully surveyed and classified based on fertility (wet, dry, garden).
• Tax Rate: Theoretically one-sixth of the produce, but often higher in practice.
• Currency: Issued gold coins called Varaha or Pagoda, indicating immense wealth.
• Trade: Thriving trade with Persia, Arabia, and Europe (Portuguese). Major imports were horses (crucial for the army); exports included spices, textiles, and precious stones.

3. Art and Architecture

The Vijayanagar period witnessed a resurgence of Hindu architectural traditions, evolving into a distinct style known as the Vijayanagar Style. It combines features of the Cholas, Hoysalas, Pandyas, and Chalukyas.

A. Key Architectural Features

1. Material: Predominantly hard granite.
2. Rayagopurams: Introduction of massive, towering gateways (Gopurams) at temple entrances.
3. Kalyana Mandapas: Ornate pillared halls for the divine marriage ceremonies of deities.
4. Pillars: Highly intricate monolithic pillars.
   • Yali: A common motif featuring a rearing horse or mythical beast carved on pillars.
   • Musical Pillars: Pillars that produce musical notes when tapped (e.g., Vittala Temple).
5. Urban Planning: The capital Hampi was divided into the Sacred Center (temples) and the Royal Center (palaces).

B. Major Monuments in Hampi

1. Virupaksha Temple: Dedicated to Lord Shiva (Virupaksha). It predates the empire but was expanded significantly by Vijayanagar kings.
2. Vittala Temple: The high point of Vijayanagar art. Features the famous Stone Chariot (a shrine built in the shape of a chariot) and the musical pillars.
3. Hazara Rama Temple: A royal chapel dedicated to Rama, famous for bas-reliefs depicting the Ramayana on its walls.
4. Secular Architecture:
   • Lotus Mahal: Shows Islamic influence (arches and domes).
   • Elephant Stables: Domed structures for royal elephants.
   • Mahanavami Dibba: A massive platform used for the Mahanavami festival and royal viewing.

C. Literature

• Sanskrit: Jambavati Kalyanam (Krishnadevaraya), Madura Vijayam (Gangadevi).
• Telugu: The Prabandha style of literature flourished. Amuktamalyada (Krishnadevaraya) and Manucharitam (Allasani Peddana).
• Kannada: Dasakuta (Bhakti songs) by Purandara Dasa and Kanaka Dasa.

4. An Introduction to Bahmani Empire

The Bahmani Sultanate was the first independent Islamic kingdom in the Deccan and the primary rival of Vijayanagar.

A. Foundation

• Date: Founded in 1347 AD.
• Founder: Alauddin Bahman Shah (Hasan Gangu).
• Revolt: He led a revolt against Muhammad bin Tughlaq and declared independence.
• Capital: Initially Gulbarga (Ahsanabad), later shifted to Bidar (Muhammadabad) in 1425 AD.

B. Political History

• Total Rulers: 18 Sultans ruled over nearly 180 years.
• Key Ruler: Taj-ud-din Firoz Shah (1397–1422): A learned ruler who inducted Hindus into the administration and encouraged astronomy (built an observatory). He engaged in constant wars with Vijayanagar.
• Mahmud Gawan (1463–1481):
  • He was not a Sultan but the Wakil (Prime Minister) under Muhammad Shah III.
  • He was a Persian merchant who became the backbone of the state.
  • Reforms: He divided the kingdom into 8 provinces (Tarafs) to curb the power of provincial governors. Introduced the use of gunpowder in wars.
  • Education: Built a famous Madrasa at Bidar.
  • Death: His execution in 1481 (due to court conspiracies) marked the beginning of the end for the empire.

C. Conflicts with Vijayanagar

The two empires were in a state of perpetual war, primarily driven by three geopolitical factors:

1. Raichur Doab: The fertile land between Krishna and Tungabhadra.
2. Krishna-Godavari Delta: Important for foreign trade and agriculture.
3. Marathwada: Access to the Konkan coast and trade routes.

D. Disintegration (The Five Deccan Sultanates)

By the early 16th century (around 1518), the Bahmani Kingdom fractured into five independent Sultanates (Shahi dynasties):

1. Nizam Shahis of Ahmednagar.
2. Adil Shahis of Bijapur (Most powerful; built Gol Gumbaz).
3. Qutb Shahis of Golconda (Built Charminar).
4. Imad Shahis of Berar.
5. Barid Shahis of Bidar.

These sultanates eventually united to defeat Vijayanagar in 1565, only to be later annexed by the Mughal Empire (Aurangzeb) in the 17th century.