Unit3 - Subjective Questions

The foundation of the Vijayanagar Empire was a significant event in medieval Indian history.

Key Circumstances:

• Decline of the Tughlaqs: The repressive policies of Muhammad bin Tughlaq created political instability in the Deccan, leading to rebellions.
• Role of Harihara and Bukka: The empire was founded by two brothers, Harihara and Bukka, of the Sangama dynasty. They were originally in the service of the Kakatiyas of Warangal and later the Kampili kingdom.
• Spiritual Inspiration: It is widely believed that the brothers were inspired by the sage Vidyaranya of the Sringeri Matha to establish a kingdom to protect Hindu dharma and culture from the invading forces.
• Geographical Location: They chose the banks of the Tungabhadra River (modern-day Hampi) as their capital due to its strategic defensibility surrounded by rocky hills.
• Consolidation: Within a short period, they consolidated power over the region, marking the beginning of the Sangama dynasty rule.

Krishnadevaraya (1509–1529) of the Tuluva dynasty is considered the zenith of the Vijayanagar Empire.

Military Achievements:

• Defeat of Bahmani Forces: He checked the advance of the Bahmani Sultans.
• Conquest of Raichur Doab: He famously defeated the Sultan of Bijapur and captured the fertile Raichur Doab.
• Orissa Campaign: He defeated the Gajapatis of Orissa and captured Udayagiri and Kondavidu.

Cultural Achievements:

• He was a great patron of literature and was known as 'Andhra Bhoja'.
• He authored 'Amuktamalyada' (Telugu) and 'Jambavati Kalyanam' (Sanskrit).
• His court was adorned by the 'Ashtadiggajas' (eight great poets), including Allasani Peddana and Tenali Rama.

Architecture and Administration:

• He built the famous Vittala and Hazara Rama temples.
• He maintained friendly relations with the Portuguese (Albuquerque) to secure the supply of horses.
• He built a new town called Nagalapuram and improved irrigation with large tanks.

The Nayankara System was a defining feature of the Vijayanagar administrative structure, functioning somewhat like a feudal setup.

• The Amara-Nayakas: The king assigned territories (land) to military chiefs known as Nayakas or Amara-Nayakas.
• Responsibilities:
  1. They collected taxes from peasants, craftspersons, and traders in their area.
  2. They retained a part of the revenue for personal use and to maintain a stipulated contingent of horses and elephants.
  3. They sent the remaining tribute to the central treasury.
• Military Obligation: The Nayakas provided military assistance to the King during wars.
• Control: The King transferred Nayakas occasionally to assert control, though later in the 17th century, many Nayakas became semi-independent, contributing to the empire's decline.

The Ayagar System was the backbone of village administration in the Vijayanagar Empire, ensuring local autonomy.

• Structure: Every village was a separate unit administered by a body of 12 functionaries known as Ayagars.
• Roles: These 12 men included the village headman (Reddi or Gauda), the accountant (Karnam), the watchman, the priest, the blacksmith, the carpenter, etc.
• Remuneration: They were not paid in cash but were granted tax-free lands (Manyams) by the villagers or the state.
• Powers: The Ayagars were hereditary officials. No property transfer (sale or gift) in the village could take place without their permission.
• Impact: This system ensured continuity in village life despite political changes at the central level.

The Vijayanagar style of architecture is a vibrant combination of the Chalukya, Hoysala, Pandya, and Chola styles, often termed the Dravidian Style in its evolved form.

Key Features:

• Kalyana Mandapas: ornate pillared halls meant for marriage ceremonies of deities.
• Raya Gopurams: Tall, massive entrance gateways (towers) to temple complexes.
• Pillars: The most striking feature is the carved pillars, often depicting the Yali (a mythical beast) or horses rearing up. The pillars are monolithic and often produce musical sounds (as seen in the Vittala Temple).
• Material: Hard granite was predominantly used.

Major Examples in Hampi:

1. Vittala Temple: Famous for its Stone Chariot and musical pillars.
2. Virupaksha Temple: An older shrine expanded significantly by the Vijayanagar rulers.
3. Hazara Rama Temple: Known for the detailed bas-reliefs depicting scenes from the Ramayana on its walls.
4. Secular Architecture: The Lotus Mahal and Elephant Stables show Islamic influence (Indo-Islamic style).

Battle of Talikota (Rakshasi-Tangadi) occurred on January 23, 1565.

• Combatants: The Vijayanagar Empire (led by Aliya Rama Raya) versus the combined forces of the Deccan Sultanates (Bijapur, Ahmadnagar, Golconda, and Bidar).
• Causes: The arrogant diplomacy of Rama Raya, who interfered in the internal affairs of the Sultanates, eventually united them against Vijayanagar.
• The Battle: Rama Raya was captured and beheaded. The Vijayanagar army was routed.
• Consequences:
  • The magnificent city of Hampi was sacked, looted, and destroyed over several months.
  • It marked the end of the glory of the Vijayanagar Empire.
  • The capital shifted to Penukonda, and later Chandragiri, but the empire never fully recovered.

Foreign travelers provide vivid descriptions of the wealth and grandeur of Vijayanagar.

• Nicolo Conti (Italian, 1420): Visited during Devaraya I. He described the city's massive circumference and the festivals like Deepavali and Navaratri.
• Abdur Razzak (Persian, 1443): An ambassador sent by Shah Rukh to Devaraya II. He famously stated: "The city is such that eye has not seen nor ear heard of any place resembling it upon the whole earth." He praised the administrative efficiency.
• Domingo Paes (Portuguese, 1520): Visited under Krishnadevaraya. He described the King’s personality, the bustling markets, and the richness of the Mahanavami festival.
• Fernao Nuniz (Portuguese, 1535): Wrote about the history of the empire and the revenue system during Achyuta Raya's reign.

The Bahmani Kingdom was the first independent Muslim kingdom in the Deccan.

• Rebellion: It emerged out of the rebellion of the Amiran-i-Sada (foreign nobles) against the oppressive rule of Muhammad bin Tughlaq.
• Foundation: In 1347 A.D., Zafar Khan (also known as Hasan Gangu) took the title of Ala-ud-Din Bahman Shah and founded the dynasty.
• Capital: He selected Gulbarga (Ahsanabad) as his capital.
• Expansion: Bahman Shah divided the kingdom into four tarafs (provinces) for better administration: Gulbarga, Daulatabad, Berar, and Bidar.
• Significance: It served as a cultural bridge between the North and South and was the primary rival to the Vijayanagar Empire.

Mahmud Gawan was the Prime Minister (Vakil-us-Sultanat) under Muhammad Shah III (1463–1482) and is considered the ablest administrator of the Bahmani kingdom.

• Military Success: He expanded the empire by conquering Goa, Dabhol, and parts of Orissa and the Andhra coast.
• Administrative Reforms:
  • He increased the number of provinces (tarafs) from 4 to 8 to reduce the power of provincial governors.
  • He centralized military control, making nobles accountable for their troops.
  • He carried out a proper land survey and fixed land revenue.
• Cultural Contribution: A great scholar himself, he built a magnificent Madrasa at Bidar, equipped with a library of 3,000 manuscripts.
• End: He fell victim to court conspiracies between the Deccanis (local Muslims) and Afaqis (foreigners) and was executed in 1481, which accelerated the empire's decline.

The conflict between Vijayanagar and Bahmani kingdoms lasted for nearly two centuries.

Primary Causes:

1. Raichur Doab: The fertile land between the Krishna and Tungabhadra rivers was the main bone of contention. Both powers wanted to control its rich agricultural resources.
2. Krishna-Godavari Delta: Both kingdoms sought control over this region for its fertile soil and foreign trade ports.
3. Marathwada Region: Conflict arose over the control of Konkan and areas bordering the main territories.
4. Ideological/Political: While often framed as religious, the wars were primarily geopolitical struggles for supremacy in the Deccan peninsula and control over the horse trade routes.

The Vijayanagar Empire was renowned for its prosperity.

• Agriculture: The mainstay of the economy. The state invested heavily in irrigation (tanks, canals like the Tungabhadra dam).
• Land Revenue: Generally fixed at one-sixth of the produce, though it varied based on soil fertility.
• Trade:
  • Inland: Numerous weekly markets (santes) existed.
  • Foreign Trade: The empire controlled key ports on both coasts. Main exports included spices (pepper), textiles, rice, iron, and saltpeter.
  • Imports: The most crucial import was Horses from Arabia and Persia (essential for the cavalry), followed by luxury goods like velvets and precious stones.
• Currency: The gold coin Varaha (or Pagoda) was widely used and recognized in international trade, indicating a monetized economy.

The Vijayanagar period was a golden age for literature in Sanskrit, Telugu, Kannada, and Tamil.

• Sanskrit: Sayana wrote commentaries on the Vedas. Gangadevi wrote Madhura Vijayam.
• Telugu (Prabandha Period):
  • Krishnadevaraya wrote Amuktamalyada (on statecraft and devotion).
  • Allasani Peddana (Andhra Kavita Pitamaha) wrote Manucharitam.
• Kannada: Prominent poets included Kumara Vyasa (wrote Gadugina Bharata) and Chamarasa.
• Patronage: The rulers actively supported scholars and poets, irrespective of language, leading to a cultural renaissance in South India.

The status of women in the Vijayanagar Empire was relatively high compared to contemporary societies, though patriarchal norms existed.

• Education & Arts: Women were educated and trained in wrestling, music, and fine arts. Gangadevi (wife of Kampana) wrote the Sanskrit work Madhura Vijayam.
• Employment: According to foreign traveler Nuniz, women were employed in the royal palace as astrologers, soothsayers, wrestlers, accountants, and guards.
• Marriage: Monogamy was common among commoners, while polygamy was practiced by royalty. The practice of Sati was prevalent, as noted by foreign travelers.
• Devadasis: The Devadasi system became established in temples, where women were attached to temples for service and dance.

Following the execution of Mahmud Gawan and the weakness of later Sultans, the provincial governors declared independence, splitting the Bahmani Kingdom into five Sultanates between 1490 and 1518:

1. Adil Shahis of Bijapur: Founded by Yusuf Adil Khan.
2. Nizam Shahis of Ahmadnagar: Founded by Malik Ahmad.
3. Imad Shahis of Berar: Founded by Fathullah Imad-ul-Mulk.
4. Qutb Shahis of Golconda: Founded by Quli Qutb Shah.
5. Barid Shahis of Bidar: Founded by Ali Barid.

These states fought among themselves but united temporarily to defeat Vijayanagar in 1565. Eventually, they were annexed by the Mughal Empire in the 17th century.

Vijayanagar Administration:

• Monarchy: Absolute monarchy, but the King was guided by Dharma.
• Council: Assisted by a Council of Ministers (Pradhani).
• Decentralization: The Nayankara system gave significant autonomy to military chiefs in provinces.
• Village: High autonomy via the Ayagar system.

Bahmani Administration:

• Structure: Followed the feudal model similar to the Delhi Sultanate.
• Ministers: Key officials included Vakil-us-Sultanat (PM), Amir-i-Jumla (Finance), and Kotwal (Police).
• Provinces: Divided into Tarafs led by Tarafdars.
• Difference: The Bahmani administration was more centralized (especially under Gawan's reforms) regarding military control compared to the loose feudal structure of the Vijayanagar Nayakas. However, factionalism (Deccani vs. Afaqi) was more pronounced in the Bahmani court.

Mahanavami Dibba (The House of Victory) is a massive stone platform located within the Royal Enclosure at Hampi.

• Construction: Attributed to Krishnadevaraya to commemorate his victory over Udayagiri (Orissa).
• Architecture: It is a three-tiered structure adorned with elaborate carvings of elephants, horses, soldiers, and dancers.
• Significance:
  • It was the stage for the grand Mahanavami Festival (Navaratri).
  • The King would sit here to inspect the army, receive tributes from the Nayakas, and watch cultural performances.
  • It served as a symbol of the King's power and prestige, reinforcing his political authority through religious ritual.

The Ashtadiggajas (literally 'Eight Elephants') were the eight great Telugu poets who adorned the court of Krishnadevaraya.

They laid the foundation for the golden era of Telugu literature (Prabandha style).

Two prominent poets:

1. Allasani Peddana: Known as Andhra Kavita Pitamaha (Grandfather of Telugu Poetry). His famous work is 'Manucharitam'.
2. Tenali Ramakrishna: Famous for his wit and humor. He wrote 'Panduranga Mahatmyam'.

(Others included Nandi Thimmana, Madayyagari Mallana, Dhurjati, Ayyalaraju Ramabhadrudu, Pingali Surana, and Ramarajabhushanudu).

The Vijayanagar Empire maintained a massive standing army to counter the Bahmani threat.

• Composition: Infantry, Cavalry, Elephants, and an Artillery wing.
• Cavalry: The most vital arm. They imported high-quality horses from Arabia and Persia (Hormuz) because local breeds were inferior.
• Firearms: They were among the first in South India to use firearms, though they were generally secondary to traditional warfare.
• Forts: The empire had a strong system of forts (Durgas) commanded by Durgapalas.
• Recruitment: Soldiers were recruited from various martial communities. The Nayakas were responsible for supplying a large portion of the troops during wartime.

The Vijayanagar Empire was ruled by four distinct dynasties over its history:

1. Sangama Dynasty (1336–1485): Founded by Harihara and Bukka. The most famous ruler was Devaraya II.
2. Saluva Dynasty (1485–1505): Founded by Saluva Narasimha, who usurped the throne to save the empire from disintegration.
3. Tuluva Dynasty (1505–1570): Founded by Vira Narasimha. This dynasty produced the greatest ruler, Krishnadevaraya. The decline began after the Battle of Talikota (1565) during this period.
4. Aravidu Dynasty (1570–1646): Founded by Tirumala after the destruction of Hampi. They ruled from Penukonda and later Chandragiri/Vellore, presiding over the gradual disintegration of the empire.

The Raichur Doab is the triangular region of land situated between the Krishna and Tungabhadra rivers.

• Economic Value: It was extremely fertile and agriculturally productive, providing significant revenue to whoever controlled it.
• Strategic Value: It contained important forts like Raichur and Mudgal which were key to military defense.
• Conflict Zone: It became the "cockpit of the Deccan," serving as the primary cause of perpetual war between the Vijayanagar Empire (to the south) and the Bahmani Kingdom (and later Bijapur, to the north).
• Famous Battle: The Battle of Raichur (1520) won by Krishnadevaraya against Ismail Adil Shah was fought specifically for this territory.