Unit 2: The Delhi Sultanate (1206-1526): Forms of Political Legitimization and Control

1. Theory of Kingship

The theory of kingship in the Delhi Sultanate was not monolithic; it evolved from the early Turkish Sultans to the Afghans, shifting between religious adherence, absolute despotism, and tribal egalitarianism.

A. The Concept of Sovereignty

The Sultans faced the unique challenge of ruling a predominantly non-Muslim population while maintaining legitimacy within the Islamic world.

• Legal Sovereignty: Technically, the Caliph (Khalifa) in Baghdad (later Cairo) was the supreme head of the Islamic world. Sultans sought mansurs (investiture) from the Caliph to legitimize their rule (e.g., Iltutmish received recognition in 1229).
• Zill-i-Ilahi: The Sultan was often projected as the "Shadow of God on Earth." This elevated the king above ordinary mortals, making rebellion a sin against God.

B. Evolution by Dynasty

i. The Ilbari Turks (Slave Dynasty)

• Iltutmish: Established a hereditary monarchy but relied heavily on the Turkan-i-Chahalgani (The Corps of Forty), a powerful elite of Turkish slaves.
• Balban: radically transformed kingship to restore prestige lost after Iltutmish.
  • Divine Right: Claimed descent from the mythical Iranian hero Afrasiyab.
  • Court Etiquette: Introduced Persian customs like Sijda (prostration) and Paibos (kissing the monarch's feet) to emphasize the Sultan's superiority.
  • Policy of Blood and Iron: Absolute despotism with no power-sharing.

ii. The Khaljis

• Jalaluddin Khalji: Proposed a humanistic view, stating that a truly Islamic state was impossible in India due to the vast Hindu majority.
• Alauddin Khalji: Represents the apex of absolutism.
  • Separation of State and Church: He declared, "I do not know whether this is lawful or unlawful; whatever I think to be for the good of the state... that I decree."
  • He believed kingship knew no kinship.

iii. The Tughlaqs

• Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq: Combined the firmness of Alauddin with the mildness of Jalaluddin.
• Muhammad bin Tughlaq: Highly intellectual but authoritarian. He initially ignored the Caliph/Ulama but later sought their approval when rebellions mounted.
• Firoz Shah Tughlaq: Reverted to a theocratic model. He ruled strictly according to Sharia to appease the orthodox Ulama, portraying himself as a pious Muslim ruler.

iv. The Lodis (Afghan Theory)

• First Among Equals: The Afghans had a tribal, egalitarian structure. The Sultan was not a divine despot but primus inter pares (first among equals).
• Bahlul Lodi: Sat on the carpet with his nobles rather than a throne.
• Ibrahim Lodi: Attempted to centralize power and crush tribal independence, which alienated the nobility and led to the downfall of the Sultanate at Panipat.

2. Relationship with Ulama and Sufis

The religious class provided spiritual legitimacy to the political rule of the Sultans.

A. The Ulama (Theologians)

The Ulama were scholars of Islamic jurisprudence (Fiqh). They staffed the judiciary (Qazis) and educational institutions.

• Symbiotic Relationship: The Sultan needed the Ulama to interpret Sharia and validate his rule to the Muslim populace; the Ulama needed the State for patronage and enforcement of religious law.
• Points of Friction:
  • Iltutmish: While respecting the Ulama, he refused their demand to force mass conversions, citing political pragmatism.
  • Alauddin Khalji: Subordinated the Ulama to the state. He famously ignored Qazi Mughisuddin’s advice on taxation and war booty.
  • Firoz Tughlaq: Allowed the Ulama to dictate state policy, leading to the imposition of Jizya on Brahmins and the destruction of temples based on orthodox interpretation.

B. The Sufis (Mystics)

Sufis held immense sway over the masses (both Hindu and Muslim). Their relationship with the state varied by order (Silsila).

• The Chistis: Maintained a strict distance from the state (Wilayat vs. Hukumat). They refused government grants (jagirs) or titles to maintain spiritual purity.
  • Conflict: Nizamuddin Auliya had a strained relationship with Sultan Qutbuddin Mubarak Shah and Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq. When Ghiyasuddin threatened him, Auliya famously uttered "Hanuz Dilli dur ast" (Delhi is yet far away).
• The Suhrawardis: Believed that association with the court allowed them to influence the Sultan toward the right path. They accepted state patronage and wealth (e.g., Sheikh Bahauddin Zakariya).

3. The Iqta System

The Iqta was the backbone of the Sultanate’s administrative and agrarian control. It was a transferable revenue assignment, not a grant of land ownership.

A. Structure and Function

• Definition: The assignment of land revenue of a specific territory to a noble/official in lieu of a cash salary.
• The Holder: Called the Muqti or Wali.
• Duties of the Muqti:
  1. Maintain law and order in the territory.
  2. Collect land revenue.
  3. Maintain a contingent of troops for the Sultan.
  4. Send the surplus revenue (Fawazil) to the central treasury.

B. Evolution of the System

• Iltutmish: Institutionalized the Iqta system to pay the Turkish nobility and centralize the diverse conquests.
• Balban: Introduced the Khwaja (accountant) to monitor the Muqti’s expenditure and prevent fraud, checking the power of the nobles.
• Alauddin Khalji:
  • Resumed many small Iqtas into Khalisa (Crown land) to increase cash flow for the standing army.
  • Strict auditing of Fawazil.
• Firoz Shah Tughlaq: A retrograde step—he made Iqtas hereditary. This converted revenue assignments into semi-feudal fiefs, weakening the central authority and reducing the revenue reaching Delhi.
• Lodis: The system became associated with tribal landholdings, further decentralizing the state.

4. Changing Composition of the Ruling Class

The nobility was the primary instrument of political control. Its composition shifted from racial exclusivity to heterogeneity.

A. The "Forty" (Ilbari Era)

• Turkan-i-Chahalgani: Under Iltutmish and his successors, the high offices were monopolized by Turkish slaves.
• Racial Exclusivity: They looked down upon "low-born" Muslims and non-Turks. Balban famously refused to speak to low-born officers.
• Destruction: Balban systematically destroyed the power of the "Forty" to secure the throne.

B. The "Khalji Revolution"

• Breaking the Monopoly: The Khaljis were Turks but had settled in Afghanistan for so long they were considered "low" by the Ilbaris. Their ascent ended the Turkish monopoly.
• Meritocracy: Alauddin Khalji appointed "New Muslims" (Mongol converts) and Indian-born Muslims to high positions based on competence rather than lineage (e.g., Malik Kafur, a slave-general from Gujarat).

C. The Tughlaq Heterogeneity

• Muhammad bin Tughlaq: His nobility was extremely diverse, including:
  • Foreigners (Khurasanis, Arabs).
  • Indian converts.
  • Hindus (e.g., Ratan, a Hindu mathematician appointed Governor of Sindh).
• Resentment: The old nobility resented this influx, leading to numerous rebellions.

D. The Afghan Tribal Nobility

• Under the Lodis, the nobility consisted of Afghan tribal chiefs (Lohanis, Farmulis, Niyazis).
• The relationship was based on kinship and tribal loyalty rather than subservience to a master.

5. Education and Literature

Education and literature acted as soft power, legitimizing the Sultanate as a civilized, high-culture state.

A. Education System

• Maktabs: Primary schools attached to mosques, teaching reading, writing, and the Quran.
• Madrasas: Institutions of higher learning.
  • Curriculum: Heavily theological (Tafsir, Hadith, Fiqh), but also included logic (Manthiq), grammar, and mysticism.
  • Patronage: Iltutmish built the Muizzi and Nasiri madrasas. Firoz Tughlaq was a great patron, establishing the Madrasa-i-Firoz Shahi at Hauz Khas.

B. Literature

• Persian Literature: The court language was Persian.
  • Amir Khusrau: The "Parrot of India." He served 7 Sultans. He created a fusion of Persian and Indian aesthetics. Notable works: Khazain-ul-Futuh (History of Alauddin), Tughlaq Nama.
  • Ziauddin Barani: Political thinker and historian. Wrote Tarikh-i-Firoz Shahi and Fatawa-i-Jahandari (Theory of Governance).
  • Minhaj-us-Siraj: Wrote Tabaqat-i-Nasiri, the primary source for the early Sultanate.
• Sanskrit and Regional Languages:
  • While Persian dominated the court, Sanskrit continued to flourish.
  • Translations: Firoz Tughlaq ordered the translation of Sanskrit works on medicine and astronomy into Persian (Dalail-i-Firoz Shahi).
  • Rise of Vernaculars: The interaction between Persian and local dialects (Khari Boli) contributed to the development of Urdu (Hindavi).

6. Art and Architecture

Architecture was a visual statement of power, used to impress the subjects and glorify the faith.

A. The Indo-Islamic Style

The Sultanate architecture blended:

• Trabeate Style (Indigenous): Pillars, lintels, beams, corbelling.
• Arcuate Style (Islamic): True arches, domes, vaults, use of mortar/lime.

B. Architectural Evolution

C. Significance

• Qutub Minar: Begun by Aibak, finished by Iltutmish. It served as a Mazana (tower to call for prayer) and a Tower of Victory, symbolizing the establishment of Islamic rule.
• Urbanization: The Sultans were great city builders (e.g., Firozabad, Jaunpur, Hissar), facilitating trade and control.