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Unit 4 - Notes

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Unit 4: The Mughal Empire

1. Sources for the Study of the Mughal Empire

The history of the Mughal Empire is reconstructed through a vast array of sources, primarily written in Persian (the court language), complemented by vernacular literature, foreign accounts, and archaeological evidence.

A. Literary Sources (Chronicles and Biographies)

The Mughals fostered a strong tradition of historiography.

  1. Autobiographies (Memoirs):

    • Tuzuk-i-Baburi (Baburnama): Written by Babur in Chagatai Turkish (later translated to Persian). It provides a candid account of the flora, fauna, political condition of India, and his military campaigns.
    • Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri: Written by Jahangir. It details his daily life, justice system, observations on nature, and court politics.

  2. Court Chronicles (Official Histories):

    • Akbarnama: Authored by Abul Fazl. A monumental work in three volumes; the third volume is the Ain-i-Akbari, which serves as a gazetteer of administration, statistics, and culture under Akbar.
    • Padshahnama (or Badshahnama): Authored by Abdul Hamid Lahori. It is the primary source for the reign of Shah Jahan.
    • Alamgirnama: Authored by Mirza Muhammad Kazim. Covers the first ten years of Aurangzeb’s reign.

  3. Other Literary Works:

    • Humayun-nama: Written by Gulbadan Begum (Humayun’s sister). It offers insight into the domestic world of the Mughals.
    • Muntakhab-ut-Tawarikh: Written by Badauni. A critical (often hostile) account of Akbar’s reign, providing a counter-narrative to Abul Fazl’s eulogies.

B. Foreign Accounts

European travelers provided valuable observations on trade, socio-economic conditions, and the military.

  • Ralph Fitch (England): Visited during Akbar’s reign; described Agra and Fatehpur Sikri.
  • William Hawkins & Sir Thomas Roe: Ambassadors to Jahangir’s court; documented court etiquette and trade negotiations.
  • Francois Bernier (France): A physician associated with Dara Shikoh and Aurangzeb; wrote Travels in the Mughal Empire, discussing the "War of Succession" and land ownership.
  • Niccolao Manucci (Italy): Wrote Storia do Mogor, a detailed account of Aurangzeb’s court.

C. Archaeological and Numismatic Sources

  • Monuments: Architecture reflects the synthesis of Persian and Indian styles (e.g., Humayun’s Tomb, Taj Mahal, Red Fort, Fatehpur Sikri).
  • Numismatics: Mughal coins were of high quality. They provide data on chronology, extent of empire, and economic stability.
  • Farmans: Royal decrees issued by the emperors are crucial for understanding administrative orders and land grants.

2. Babur’s Conquest of Northern India

Zahir-ud-din Muhammad Babur (1483–1530), a descendant of Timur and Genghis Khan, founded the Mughal Empire in India.

A. Background and Context

  • Babur was originally the ruler of Ferghana (Central Asia) but lost his kingdom. He established himself in Kabul in 1504.
  • Political Condition of India: North India was fragmented. The Delhi Sultanate under Ibrahim Lodi was weak and unpopular. Regional powers like the Rajputs (Rana Sanga) were asserting independence.
  • Invitation: Daulat Khan Lodi (Governor of Punjab) and Rana Sanga invited Babur to invade India to displace Ibrahim Lodi.

B. Major Battles and Conquests

1. First Battle of Panipat (21 April 1526)

  • Combatants: Babur vs. Ibrahim Lodi.
  • Strategy: Babur utilized the Tulughma strategy (flanking movement) and the Rumi (Ottoman) device (lashing carts together to protect matchlockmen and cannons).
  • Outcome: Despite having a smaller army, Babur’s use of artillery (gunpowder) devastated Lodi’s forces. Ibrahim Lodi was killed.
  • Significance: Marked the end of the Delhi Sultanate and the foundation of Mughal rule.

2. Battle of Khanwa (1527)

  • Combatants: Babur vs. Rana Sanga (Mewar) and a coalition of Rajput chiefs/Afghan nobles.
  • Context: Rana Sanga realized Babur intended to stay in India, not just loot and leave.
  • Babur’s Tactics: To boost morale, Babur declared the war a Jihad (Holy War) and renounced wine. He used the same artillery tactics as Panipat.
  • Outcome: Decisive Mughal victory.
  • Significance: Destroyed the possibility of a Rajput resurgence and secured Mughal rule in the Gangetic plains.

3. Battle of Chanderi (1528)

  • Babur defeated Medini Rai, a Rajput chief of Malwa, capturing the strategic fort of Chanderi.

4. Battle of Ghagra (1529)

  • Babur defeated the combined forces of the Afghans (led by Mahmud Lodi) and the Sultan of Bengal.
  • Significance: This was the first battle fought on both land and water.

C. Conclusion on Babur

Babur died in 1530. He did not live long enough to consolidate the administration, leaving a somewhat loose empire to his son Humayun. However, he broke the power of the Lodis and the Rajputs, establishing the Mughals as the paramount power.

3. Expansion and Consolidation under Akbar (1556–1605)

After the interregnum of the Sur Empire (Sher Shah Suri) and Humayun's brief return, Akbar ascended the throne at age 13.

A. Early Challenges and Regency

  • Second Battle of Panipat (1556): Akbar’s forces, led by his regent Bairam Khan, defeated Hemu (Hemchandra Vikramaditya), who had seized Delhi.
  • Bairam Khan's Regency (1556–1560): Bairam Khan consolidated power but was eventually dismissed by Akbar.

B. Imperial Expansion

Akbar followed a policy of aggressive imperialism.

  1. Central India: Annexation of Gwalior, Jaunpur, and Malwa (defeated Baz Bahadur). Conquest of Gondwana (defeated Rani Durgavati).
  2. Rajputana:
    • Conciliation: Used matrimonial alliances (married the daughter of Raja Bharmal of Amber/Jaipur).
    • Force: Captured strategic forts of Chittor (1568) and Ranthambore (1569).
    • Battle of Haldighati (1576): Fought against Maharana Pratap of Mewar. While Mughals held the field, Pratap escaped and continued guerilla warfare.
  3. Gujarat (1572): Critical for trade routes to the Arabian Sea. To commemorate this victory, Akbar built the Buland Darwaza at Fatehpur Sikri.
  4. Bengal and Bihar (1574–1576): Defeated Daud Khan, ending the last Afghan resistance in the East.
  5. North-West Frontier: Annexed Kabul (1581), Kashmir (1586), Sindh (1591), and Baluchistan (1595).
  6. Deccan: Initiated expansion into the Deccan; annexed Khandesh, Berar, and parts of Ahmednagar.

C. Administrative Consolidation

1. Mansabdari System

  • The steel frame of Mughal civil and military administration.
  • Every official was given a rank (Mansab).
  • Zat: Determined personal status and salary.
  • Sawar: Determined the number of cavalrymen the officer had to maintain.
  • Mansabdars were paid either in cash (Naqdi) or through land revenue assignments (Jagir).

2. Land Revenue System (Zabti or Bandobast System)

  • Architect: Raja Todar Mal.
  • Dahsala System (1580): Revenue was fixed based on the average produce and average prices of the last 10 years.
  • Land classification: Polaj (cultivated annually), Parauti (fallow), Chachar, and Banjar.

D. Religious Policy

  • Abolished the Pilgrimage Tax (1563) and Jizya (1564).
  • Ibadat Khana (1575): House of Worship at Fatehpur Sikri for discussions with scholars of all religions (Islam, Hinduism, Christianity, Zoroastrianism).
  • Sulh-i-kul: The policy of "Universal Peace" or religious tolerance.
  • Din-i-Ilahi (Tauhid-i-Ilahi): A syncretic spiritual code propounded by Akbar in 1582, emphasizing monotheism and loyalty to the emperor.

4. Expansion and Consolidation under Jahangir and Shah Jahan

A. Jahangir (1605–1627)

Jahangir (Salim) largely maintained the administrative structure established by Akbar but focused more on culture and justice.

  1. Consolidation and Challenges:

    • Rebellion of Khusrau: His son Khusrau rebelled. Jahangir defeated him and executed the 5th Sikh Guru, Guru Arjan Dev, for blessing Khusrau, initiating Mughal-Sikh conflict.
    • Twelve Ordinances: Issued upon accession to ensure justice and welfare.
    • Chain of Justice (Zanjir-i-Adal): Installed at Agra Fort for seekers of justice to bypass bureaucracy.

  2. Military Achievements:

    • Submission of Mewar (1615): Prince Khurram (later Shah Jahan) forced Rana Amar Singh to sign a peace treaty, ending the long conflict. The Rana was exempted from personal attendance at court.
    • Deccan: Malik Ambar (Ahmednagar) offered stiff resistance using guerilla tactics. Mughals had limited success.
    • Kangra: Conquered in 1620.
    • Loss of Kandahar (1622): Lost to the Persians; a major blow to prestige and trade security.

  3. The Nur Jahan Junta:

    • Jahangir married Mehr-un-Nisa (Nur Jahan) in 1611. She, along with her father (Itimad-ud-Daulah) and brother (Asaf Khan), dominated court politics during Jahangir’s later years.

B. Shah Jahan (1628–1658)

Known as the "Engineer King," his reign is often called the Golden Age of Mughal Architecture.

  1. Deccan Policy (Aggressive Expansion):

    • Annexation of Ahmednagar (1633): Completely absorbed into the empire.
    • Treaties with Bijapur and Golconda (1636): Forced them to accept Mughal suzerainty and pay tribute. Aurangzeb was appointed Viceroy of the Deccan.

  2. North-West and Central Asian Policy:

    • Kandahar: Recovered briefly (1638) but lost permanently to Persia in 1649 despite three major campaigns.
    • Balkh and Badakhshan: Launched a campaign to reclaim ancestral Timurid lands in Central Asia. It was a catastrophic failure in terms of men and money.

  3. Administration:

    • The empire was at its financial peak.
    • Administrative centralization increased.
    • Arts and culture flourished (Taj Mahal, Peacock Throne).

  4. War of Succession (1657–1658):

    • Fought among his four sons: Dara Shikoh, Shuja, Aurangzeb, and Murad.
    • Aurangzeb emerged victorious, imprisoned Shah Jahan in Agra Fort, and crowned himself emperor.

5. Expansion and Consolidation under Aurangzeb (1658–1707)

Aurangzeb (Alamgir) ruled for nearly 50 years. His reign saw the empire reach its greatest territorial extent but also the beginning of its collapse.

A. Phase I: North India (1658–1681)

  1. Eastern Frontier:

    • Mir Jumla (Governor of Bengal) invaded Ahoms (Assam) and forced a treaty in 1663. However, Ahoms later regained independence.
    • Capture of Chittagong from Arakanese pirates (1666).

  2. North-West Frontier:

    • Suppressed revolts by Yusufzai and other Pathan tribes.

  3. Religious Policy and Rebellions:

    • Aurangzeb was an orthodox Sunni. He appointed Muhtasibs (censors of public morals).
    • 1669: Order to demolish temples (e.g., Kashi Vishwanath, Mathura).
    • 1679: Re-imposition of Jizya tax on non-Muslims.
    • Rebellions:
      • Jats (1669): Led by Gokula, later Rajaram and Churaman.
      • Satnamis (1672): Agrarian revolt in Narnaul.
      • Sikhs: Execution of the 9th Guru, Guru Tegh Bahadur (1675), for refusing to convert. This led the 10th Guru, Gobind Singh, to militarize the Sikhs (Khalsa Panth).
      • Rajputs: The death of Jaswant Singh of Marwar led to a succession dispute. Aurangzeb’s intervention alienated the Rathores (led by Durgadas Rathore) and Sisodias of Mewar.

B. Phase II: The Deccan (1681–1707)

Aurangzeb moved his capital to the Deccan to crush the Marathas and the Shia Sultanates.

  1. Conflict with Marathas:

    • Shivaji: Had established an independent kingdom. Treaty of Purandar (1665) was signed with Jai Singh, but peace was temporary.
    • After Shivaji’s death (1680), Aurangzeb executed his son Sambhaji (1689).
    • This backfired, turning the Maratha resistance into a "People's War" that the Mughals could not win.

  2. Annexation of Deccan Sultanates:

    • Bijapur: Annexed in 1686 (Sikandar Adil Shah surrendered).
    • Golconda: Annexed in 1687 (Abul Hasan Qutb Shah defeated).
    • Result: While the empire extended to the deep south, the administrative burden became too heavy. The destruction of these Sultanates removed the local buffer against the Marathas.

C. Decline

By the time of Aurangzeb’s death in 1707:

  • Jagirdari Crisis: Too many nobles (Mansabdars) waiting for too few Jagirs (land grants).
  • Financial Drain: The Deccan wars emptied the treasury.
  • Administrative Breakdown: The emperor’s long absence from Delhi weakened control over the North.
  • Agrarian Crisis: Peasant oppression led to revolts.

Summary

The Mughal Empire consolidated under Akbar through inclusion and administrative genius. It reached cultural heights under Shah Jahan. Under Aurangzeb, it reached its maximum size, but rigid policies and over-expansion sowed the seeds of rapid disintegration in the 18th century.

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