Unit 6: Medieval India and cultural activities

1. Painting in Medieval India

The medieval period witnessed a transition from large-scale mural paintings (like Ajanta) to miniature paintings. The introduction of paper in the 14th century revolutionized the art form.

A. Pre-Mughal and Sultanate Schools

• Pala School (11th–12th Century): Focused on Buddhist themes (Vajrayana Buddhism). Executed on palm leaves and manuscripts.
• Apabhramsha/Jain School (Gujarat/Rajasthan): Characterized by bulging eyes, pointed noses, and double chins. Primarily illustrated Jain texts (Kalpa Sutra).
• Sultanate Painting: Though orthodox Islam discouraged painting living beings, evidence suggests the persistence of mural and manuscript art. The Nimat-nama (Book of Delicacies) from Malwa shows a blend of Persian and indigenous styles.

B. The Mughal School of Painting

This school represents a synthesis of Persian (Safavid) and Indian styles.

• Humayun: Brought Persian masters Mir Sayyid Ali and Abdus Samad to India, laying the foundation.
• Akbar: Established a formal Tasvir Khana (atelier). The style moved from purely Persian to a fusion.
  • Key Works: Tutinama (Tales of a Parrot), Hamzanama.
  • Focus: Manuscripts, court scenes, and dynamic action.
  • Basawan and Daswanth were prominent Indian painters in his court.
• Jahangir (The Golden Age): Painting moved from manuscript illustration to individual portraiture and nature studies.
  • Focus: Flora, fauna (e.g., the dodo, zebra, falcon), and psychological portraits.
  • Key Artist: Ustad Mansur (famous for birds/animals) and Bishandas.
  • Introduction of European influence (perspective and halos around emperors).
• Shah Jahan: Continued the tradition but the style became rigid and static. Heavy use of gold and ornate borders. Focus on Darbar (court) scenes to project majesty.
• Aurangzeb: Discouraged painting; artists dispersed to regional courts.

C. Regional Schools (Rajput and Pahari)

As Mughal patronage declined, artists migrated to Rajputana and the Himalayan foothills.

• Rajasthani School: Deeply rooted in Hindu traditions, Bhakti cult, and folk art.
  • Mewar School: Bold colors, emotional intensity.
  • Kishangarh School: Famous for the Bani Thani painting (Indian Mona Lisa); characterized by elongated faces and lotus-shaped eyes.
  • Themes: Raganyas (musical modes), Baramasa (seasons), and Krishna-Radha lila.
• Pahari School (Kangra/Basohli): Developed in the Himalayan states.
  • Kangra Style: Lyrical, delicate, and feminine. Focus on soft greens and blues.
  • Basohli Style: Bold, vigorous, and use of primary colors.

D. Deccan School

Developed in Ahmednagar, Bijapur, and Golconda. Distinct from Mughal style by its use of rich colors (gold, blue), three-quarter profiles, and costume details.

2. Architecture in Medieval India

Medieval architecture is characterized by the Indo-Islamic style, blending the Trabeate order (Indian: lintels, beams, pillars) with the Arcuate order (Islamic: arches, domes, vaults).

A. Delhi Sultanate Architecture

• Imperial Style (Delhi):
  • Slave Dynasty: Introduction of the arch and minaret. Qutub Minar and Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque (built using spolia from Hindu/Jain temples).
  • Khilji Dynasty: Introduction of the true arch and dome. Use of red sandstone. Alai Darwaza (Siri Fort).
  • Tughlaq Dynasty: Massive, battered (sloping) walls, grey quartzite, minimal decoration. Tughlaqabad Fort.
  • Lodi Dynasty: Introduction of the double dome (adds height) and octagonal tombs. Lodi Gardens.
• Provincial Style:
  • Bengal: Brick construction, curved cornice (Bangla roof). Adina Mosque.
  • Jaunpur: Massive pylons (propylon) masking the dome. Atala Masjid.
  • Malwa: High plinths and large windows. Mandu complex.

B. Mughal Architecture

The climax of Indo-Islamic architecture.

• Babur & Humayun: Laid out Persian gardens (Charbagh).
• Akbar: Massive use of red sandstone. Fusion of Hindu/Buddhist elements (kiosks, brackets).
  • Agra Fort.
  • Fatehpur Sikri: Buland Darwaza (highest gateway), Panch Mahal (Buddhist influence), Tomb of Salim Chishti (early use of white marble).
• Jahangir: Transition from sandstone to marble.
  • Itmad-ud-Daulah’s Tomb: First building entirely of white marble; introduction of Pietra Dura (inlay work with semi-precious stones).
• Shah Jahan (The Age of Marble):
  • Taj Mahal: The pinnacle of architecture. Perfect symmetry, white Makrana marble, extensive Pietra Dura, calligraphy, and Charbagh gardens.
  • Red Fort (Delhi): Diwan-i-Aam, Diwan-i-Khas.
  • Jama Masjid: Largest mosque in India.
• Aurangzeb: Decline in architectural patronage. Badshahi Mosque (Lahore) and Bibi ka Maqbara (Aurangabad).

C. South Indian Architecture (Vijayanagara)

• Vijayanagara Style: Evolution of Dravidian style.
  • Kalyana Mandapas: Ornate pillared halls for marriage ceremonies of deities.
  • Raya Gopurams: Massive, towering gateways.
  • Musical Pillars: Carved pillars that produce musical notes when struck (Vittala Temple).
  • Horse Motif: Rearing horses carved on pillars are a signature feature.

3. Literature in Medieval India

A. Persian Literature

Persian was the court language of the Sultanate and Mughals.

• Al-Biruni: Kitab-ul-Hind (Study of Indian sciences and culture).
• Amir Khusrau: Known as the "Parrot of India." Created a new style Sabaq-i-Hindi. Wrote Khazain-ul-Futuh.
• Babur: Wrote his autobiography Tuzuk-i-Baburi (originally in Chagatai Turkic, translated to Persian).
• Abul Fazl: Wrote Akbarnama and Ain-i-Akbari (administration of Akbar).
• Dara Shikoh: Translated the Upanishads into Persian (Sirr-i-Akbar).

B. Sanskrit Literature

Though Persian dominated the court, Sanskrit thrived in regional kingdoms and religious circles.

• Kalhana: Rajatarangini (History of Kashmir).
• Jayadeva: Gita Govinda (Bhakti poetry).
• Commentaries: Major commentaries on Smritis (Mitakshara law) were written during this time.

C. Regional and Vernacular Literature

The Bhakti and Sufi movements spurred the growth of regional languages.

• Hindi/Awadhi/Braj:
  • Tulsidas: Ramcharitmanas (Ramayana in Awadhi).
  • Surdas: Sursagar (Devotion to Krishna in Braj Bhasha).
  • Kabir: Dohas (Couplets) emphasizing monotheism and social equality.
  • Malik Muhammad Jayasi: Padmavat (Sufi allegory).
• Marathi: Eknath, Tukaram (Abhangas), and Jnaneshwar (commentary on Gita).
• Bengali: Chaitanya Mahaprabhu’s influence led to Vaishnava literature; Krittibas Ojha translated the Ramayana.
• Urdu: Evolved in the camps (Zaban-i-Urdu) as a mixture of Persian, Arabic, and Khari Boli. Developed significantly in the Deccan (Dakhini Urdu).

4. Education in Medieval India

Education was primarily private or religious, dependent on royal patronage or philanthropy. There was no state-controlled public education system.

A. Islamic Education

• Maktabs: Primary schools attached to mosques. Taught reading, writing, and the Quran.
• Madrasas: Institutions for higher learning.
  • Curriculum: Theology (Tafsir, Hadith), Islamic Law (Fiqh), Logic, Astronomy, and Grammar.
  • Famous Centers: Delhi, Agra, Jaunpur (known as the "Shiraz of the East"), and Bidar (Mahmud Gawan’s Madrasa).
• Secular Subjects: Akbar introduced the study of mathematics, agriculture, history, and geography into the Madrasa curriculum.

B. Hindu Education

• Pathshalas: Primary village schools.
• Tols and Gurukuls: Higher learning centers.
  • Curriculum: Vedanta, Grammar (Vyakarana), Logic (Nyaya), Jyotisha (Astronomy), and Law (Dharmashastra).
  • Famous Centers: Nadia (Bengal), Mithila (Bihar), Varanasi, and Tirupati.
• Vocational Training: Most technical skills (crafts, metallurgy, architecture) were hereditary and taught within the family or guilds (Srenis).

5. Status of Women

The status of women generally declined during the medieval period due to political instability and social rigidities, though there were notable exceptions.

A. General Social Status

• Patriarchy: Society was strictly patriarchal. Women were economically dependent on fathers, husbands, or sons.
• Purdah System: The practice of veiling became widespread among upper-class Muslims and Hindus, particularly in North India.
• Social Evils:
  • Sati: Practiced widely among the Rajput nobility.
  • Jauhar: Mass self-immolation by women to avoid capture by enemy forces (e.g., during invasions of Chittor).
  • Child Marriage: Became the norm to protect girls’ "honor."
  • Polygamy: Prevalent among the ruling classes (both Hindu and Muslim).

B. Property and Rights

• Muslim Women: Had the right to Mehr (dower) and a share in parental property (though often denied in practice). Divorce was permitted but difficult for women to initiate.
• Hindu Women: No share in property (except Stridhan—movable gifts given during marriage).

C. Notable Women Figures

Despite restrictions, royal and noble women exercised power:

• Razia Sultan: The only female ruler of the Delhi Sultanate.
• Nur Jahan: Effectively ruled the Mughal Empire during Jahangir’s later years.
• Chand Bibi: Defended Ahmednagar against Mughal forces.
• Gulbadan Begum: Wrote Humayun-nama.
• Mira Bai: A symbol of spiritual independence, rejecting royal constraints for devotion to Krishna.

6. Trade and Commerce

Medieval India was an economic powerhouse, often described as the "sink of gold and silver" due to its favorable balance of trade.

A. Internal Trade

• Local Trade: Conducted in Hats (weekly markets) and Mandis (wholesale markets).
• Banjaras: Nomadic trading communities who transported bulk goods (grain, salt) on ox-caravans over long distances.
• Banking: The Hundi system (bills of exchange) allowed safe transfer of money across the empire. Sarrafs (money changers/bankers) played a crucial role.

B. Foreign Trade

• Exports:
  • Textiles: Cotton cloth (Calico, Muslin), silk. India was the world's largest textile producer.
  • Spices: Pepper (Black Gold), cardamom, ginger.
  • Others: Indigo, saltpeter (for gunpowder), sugar, opium, precious stones.
• Imports:
  • Horses: Vital for cavalry; imported from Arabia and Central Asia.
  • Metals: Gold, silver (to mint coins), tin, copper.
  • Luxury Goods: Silk from China, wine, glass from Europe.
• Major Ports:
  • West Coast: Surat (Mughal gateway to Mecca), Cambay, Calicut, Goa.
  • East Coast: Masulipatnam, Sonargaon (Bengal).

C. Industrial Production

• Karkhanas: Royal workshops maintained by Sultans and Emperors. Produced luxury items (robes, goldware, weapons) for the court.
• Guilds: Artisans were organized into caste-based guilds that maintained quality and trained apprentices.

D. Currency

• Sultanate: Introduction of the Tanka (Silver) and Jital (Copper).
• Mughals: Standardized currency.
  • Rupiya: Silver coin standardized by Sher Shah Suri and adopted by Akbar.
  • Mohur: Gold coin.
  • Dam: Copper coin.