Unit6 - Subjective Questions

Evolution of Mughal Painting

The Mughal School of Painting originated during the reign of Humayun, who brought Persian artists Mir Sayyid Ali and Abdus Samad to India. It evolved significantly under subsequent rulers:

1. Under Akbar (1556–1605):

   • Synthesis: Akbar established a distinct style combining Persian calligraphic elegance with Indian vibrant colors and realism.
   • Tasvir Khana: He established a formal atelier where over a hundred painters worked.
   • Themes: Manuscript illustrations (e.g., Hamzanama, Razmnama, Akbarnama). The focus was often on action, crowded scenes, and mythology.
   • Perspective: Introduction of the foreshortening technique.

2. Under Jahangir (1605–1627):

   • Golden Age: Mughal painting reached its zenith.
   • Shift in Style: Moved away from manuscript illustration to individual portraiture and album painting (Muraqqa).
   • Naturalism: Jahangir had a keen interest in flora and fauna. Paintings of birds (e.g., by Ustad Mansur), flowers, and animals became prominent.
   • European Influence: Visible use of halo behind the Emperor's head and distinct treatment of light and shadow.

Delhi Sultanate Architecture

The arrival of Turks introduced the Arcuate style of architecture, which blended with the indigenous Trabeate style.

Key Innovations:

• The Dome: Allowed for large, open prayer halls.
• Minarets: Towers used for the call to prayer.
• Jali Work: Intricate stone lattice screens.

Development of Regional Literature

The Medieval period saw the rise of vernacular languages alongside Sanskrit and Persian. This was largely driven by the Bhakti Movement saints who preached in the language of the common people.

• Hindi (Awadhi & Braj):
  • Tulsidas: Wrote Ramcharitmanas in Awadhi.
  • Surdas: Composed Sursagar in Braj Bhasha, dedicated to Lord Krishna.
  • Kabir: His Dohas (couplets) influenced the Hindi language significantly.
• Bengali:
  • Development under the patronage of Bengal Sultans.
  • Chaitanya Mahaprabhu's influence led to Vaishnava literature.
  • Krittibas Ojha translated the Ramayana into Bengali.
• Marathi:
  • Eknath, Tukaram, and Jnaneshwar enriched Marathi literature through Abhangs and commentaries on the Gita.
• Punjabi:
  • Growth of Gurmukhi script and composition of the Adi Granth by the Sikh Gurus.

This period marked the shift of literature from the courts to the masses.

Status of Women in Medieval India

The status of women during the Medieval period was generally subordinate, though there were variations based on region and class.

1. Social Practices:

• Purdah System: The practice of veiling became widespread among upper-class Hindu and Muslim women due to social norms and security concerns.
• Sati: The practice of self-immolation by widows was prevalent, particularly in Rajput communities.
• Jauhar: Mass self-immolation by women to avoid capture by enemy forces during wars.
• Child Marriage: It was a common social norm; widow remarriage was generally restricted among upper castes.
• Devadasis: In South India, the system of dedicating women to temple service continued.

2. Political Participation:
Despite social restrictions, several women rose to power:

• Razia Sultan: The only female ruler of the Delhi Sultanate.
• Nur Jahan: Exerted immense political influence during Jahangir's reign, effectively running the empire (Junta period).
• Chand Bibi: Known for her defense of Ahmednagar against Mughal forces.
• Jijabai: Played a crucial role as a mentor to Shivaji Maharaj.

Pietra Dura Technique

Definition:
Pietra Dura (Italian for "hard stone") refers to the architectural inlay technique where highly polished, colored stones are cut and fitted into a marble surface to create images or patterns.

Key Characteristics:

• Materials: Semi-precious stones like lapis lazuli, jade, crystal, turquoise, and amethyst were used.
• Method: The marble base was carved out, and the cut stones were glued in so precisely that the join was invisible.
• Designs: Mostly floral and geometrical patterns, adhering to Islamic restrictions on depicting living beings in religious contexts.

Significance in Mughal Architecture:

• Itmad-ud-Daulah’s Tomb: This monument marks the transition from red sandstone to white marble and the first extensive use of Pietra Dura.
• Taj Mahal: The technique reached its perfection here. The cenotaphs and screens are covered in exquisite floral pietra dura inlays, symbolizing the gardens of paradise.

Trade and Commerce in Medieval India

Medieval India maintained a favorable balance of trade, serving as a major hub in the global economy.

1. Exports:

• Textiles: Cotton cloth (calico, muslin) from Bengal and Gujarat, and silk were the largest exports.
• Spices: Pepper (black gold), cardamom, ginger, and cloves from the Malabar coast.
• Indigo & Saltpetre: Indigo for dyeing and saltpetre for gunpowder were in high demand in Europe.
• Other items: Opium, sugar, rice, and precious stones.

2. Imports:

• Horses: High-quality war horses were imported from Arabia and Central Asia (essential for the cavalry-based armies).
• Metals: Tin, copper, and gold/silver bullion (India was known as a sink for gold/silver).
• Luxury Goods: Silk from China, wine, glassware, and dry fruits from Persia/Europe.

3. Trade Routes:

• Overland: Connected India to Central Asia and Persia via the Khyber and Bolan passes.
• Maritime: Ports like Surat, Masulipatnam, Calicut, and Sonargaon were bustling trade centers.

The Karkhana System

Definition:
Karkhanas were royal workshops or factories established by Sultans and Mughal Emperors to meet the needs of the royal household and the army.

Functions and Role:

• Manufacturing: They produced luxury items like gold ornaments, perfumes, embroidered textiles, and utilitarian items like swords, armors, and saddles.
• Employment: They employed the best artisans and craftsmen from across the empire and abroad, providing them with steady wages and raw materials.
• Skill Preservation: They acted as training centers where skills were passed down from master to apprentice.
• Types: According to historian Afif (Tughlaq period), there were two types:
  1. Ratibi: Those with fixed wages (for men and animals).
  2. Ghair-Ratibi: Those producing goods.

Significance:
The Karkhanas ensured that the quality of craftsmanship in India remained high and standardized for the elite class.

Contribution of Amir Khusrau (1253–1325)

Known as Tuti-e-Hind (Parrot of India), Amir Khusrau was a polymath, poet, musician, and scholar associated with the courts of several Delhi Sultans, most notably Alauddin Khilji.

Key Contributions:

• Literature:
  • He wrote in Persian but also pioneered the use of Hindavi (early Hindi/Urdu).
  • Created a new style of Persian poetry called Sabaq-i-Hindi (Indian style).
  • Famous works include Khazain-ul-Futuh (history of Alauddin’s conquests) and Tughlaq Nama.
• Music:
  • Credited with inventing the Sitar and Tabla.
  • Introduced new Ragas like Ghora and Sanam.
  • Developed the Qawwali musical style by blending Persian and Indian musical traditions.
• Cultural Synthesis:
  • He famously praised India's flora, fauna, and learning, bridging the cultural gap between the rulers and the subjects.

Features of Rajasthani School of Painting

Developing between the 16th and 19th centuries, this style flourished in the princely states of Rajasthan (Mewar, Bundi, Kishangarh, etc.).

Key Characteristics:

• Themes: heavily influenced by the Bhakti Movement. Common themes included:
  • Radha-Krishna leela.
  • Ramayana and Mahabharata episodes.
  • Ragamala (pictorial representation of musical modes).
• Color Palette: Use of bold, glowing, and primary colors (red, yellow, blue). Colors were often derived from minerals and vegetables.
• Two-Dimensionality: unlike the Mughal style, there was less emphasis on depth and perspective; the focus was on flat color fields and bold lines.
• Nature: Depiction of nature is symbolic and emotional (e.g., storm clouds representing passion).
• Distinct Sub-schools:
  • Kishangarh: Known for the 'Bani Thani' painting (elongated features).
  • Bundi/Kota: Known for hunting scenes and lush vegetation.

The Hundi System

Definition:
A Hundi was a financial instrument, essentially a bill of exchange or a promissory note, used extensively in Medieval India.

Mechanism:
A merchant could deposit money with a Shroff (banker) in one city and receive a Hundi. This Hundi could be presented to an agent of the Shroff in another city to withdraw the equivalent amount or used to pay for goods.

Significance:

1. Safety: It eliminated the risk of robbery associated with carrying large amounts of cash (gold/silver coins) over long distances.
2. Credit: It facilitated credit transactions, allowing trade to expand beyond immediate cash availability.
3. Integration: It integrated the rural and urban economies and connected Indian markets with international trade networks.
4. Types: There were various types, such as Darshani Hundi (payable on sight) and Muddati Hundi (payable after a fixed period).

Education System in Medieval India

Education was primarily religious in nature but also included logic, philosophy, and medicine. There was no state-controlled public education system; it relied on patronage.

1. Muslim Educational Institutions:

• Maktabs: Primary schools attached to mosques. The curriculum included basic reading, writing, and reciting the Quran.
• Madrasas: Institutions of higher learning. The curriculum included theology (Tafsir, Hadith), logic, astronomy, mathematics, and law (Fiqh). Famous centers included Delhi, Jaunpur, and Bidar.

2. Hindu Educational Institutions:

• Pathshalas: Primary schools often held under trees or in temples. Basic arithmetic and reading were taught.
• Tols/Vidyalayas: Centers for higher learning (Sanskrit colleges). Famous centers were Banaras (Varanasi), Nadia, and Mithila.
• Curriculum: Focused on Vedas, Grammar (Vyakaran), Logic (Nyaya), and Philosophy.

Vocational Training:
Apart from formal schools, technical education was largely hereditary, passed from father to son within artisan guilds or families.

Architectural Achievements of Shah Jahan

Shah Jahan's reign is considered the Golden Age of Mughal Architecture. He moved away from the red sandstone of Akbar to white marble.

Key Achievements:

1. The Taj Mahal (Agra):
   • Built in memory of Mumtaz Mahal.
   • Features a massive white marble bulbous dome, four minarets at the corners of the plinth, and perfect symmetry.
   • Extensive use of Pietra Dura and calligraphy.
2. Red Fort (Shahjahanabad/Delhi):
   • Built when he shifted the capital to Delhi.
   • Contains the Diwan-i-Aam (Hall of Public Audience) and Diwan-i-Khas (Hall of Private Audience).
   • The Diwan-i-Khas famously bore the inscription: "If there is paradise on earth, it is this, it is this, it is this."
3. Jama Masjid (Delhi):
   • One of the largest mosques in India, built on a high plinth with stripes of red sandstone and white marble on the domes.
4. City Planning:
   • Designed the city of Shahjahanabad with broad avenues and canals (Chandni Chowk).

Influence of Bhakti and Sufi Movements on Literature

Both movements democratized religion and, by extension, literature.

1. Use of Vernaculars:
   • Saints preached in the language of the masses rather than classical Sanskrit or Arabic.
   • This led to the explosion of literature in Hindi, Bengali, Marathi, Punjabi, etc.
2. Themes:
   • Moved away from courtly panegyrics to themes of love, devotion, and humanity.
   • Sufi Literature: Introduced the concept of Ishq-e-Haqiqi (divine love) through metaphors of human love (Ishq-e-Majazi). Example: Malik Muhammad Jayasi’s Padmavat (Awadhi).
3. Poetic Forms:
   • Popularized forms like Doha, Pada, Abhang, Vakh, and Qawwali.
4. Integration:
   • Sufi poets often used local Indian imagery (seasonal cycles like Barahmasa) to explain spiritual concepts, enriching the local literary traditions.

Persian Literature in the Mughal Period

Persian was the court language and flourished under Mughal patronage.

1. Autobiographies:

• Baburnama (Tuzuk-i-Baburi): Originally in Chaghatai Turkish by Babur, translated into Persian by Abdur Rahim Khan-i-Khanan.
• Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri: Jahangir’s memoirs, known for their candidness and details on nature.

2. Historical Works:

• Akbarnama: Written by Abul Fazl, it is a detailed history of Akbar’s reign, including the Ain-i-Akbari (administration).
• Muntakhab-ut-Tawarikh: Written by Badauni (a critic of Akbar).
• Padshahnama: By Abdul Hamid Lahori, covering Shah Jahan’s reign.

3. Translations (Maktab Khana):

• Akbar established a translation department.
• The Mahabharata was translated into Persian as the Razmnama.
• The Ramayana and Upanishads (under Dara Shikoh as Sirr-i-Akbar) were also translated.

Charbagh Style

Definition:
Charbagh is a Persian-style garden layout introduced to India by Babur. It involves dividing a quadrilateral garden into four smaller parts by walkways or flowing water channels (representing the four rivers of Paradise in Islam).

Key Features:

• Symmetry: The layout is strictly geometrical.
• Water: Central pools or fountains are usually placed at the intersection of the channels.
• Placement: Monuments (tombs or pavilions) were often placed at the center or the end of the garden.

Examples in India:

1. Humayun’s Tomb (Delhi): The first mature example of the Charbagh in India.
2. Taj Mahal (Agra): Here, the main monument is placed at the end of the garden rather than the center.
3. Shalimar Bagh (Srinagar): A terrace garden adaptation of the style.

Currency Reforms of Sher Shah Suri

Sher Shah Suri (1540–1545) revolutionized the medieval Indian currency system, laying the foundation for the modern Rupee.

Key Reforms:

1. Standardization: He replaced the debased coins of previous rulers with coins of fixed weight and purity.
2. The Rupiya: He introduced a silver coin called the Rupiya (weight 178 grains), which remained the standard currency for centuries (and the precursor to the modern Rupee).
3. The Dam: He introduced a copper coin called the Dam for smaller transactions.
4. Gold Mohur: Issued for high-value transactions.
5. Exchange Rate: Fixed the exchange rate between the silver Rupiya and copper Dam (approx. 1:64).

Impact on Trade:

• Trust: Standardized currency instilled confidence among merchants.
• Ease of Transaction: Simplified accounting and reduced the chaos of multiple local currencies.
• Revenue Collection: Made tax collection more efficient.

Vijayanagara Architecture (1336–1646)

The Vijayanagara rulers (Dravidian style) built extensively in Hampi.

Key Features:

1. Material: Extensive use of hard granite.
2. Pillars: The hallmark of this style. Pillars were carved as monolithic sculptures (e.g., the Yali—a mythical horse-lion beast) or "Musical Pillars" (e.g., inside Vittala Temple).
3. Rayagopurams: Tall, imposing entrance gateways (Gopurams) added to temples.
4. Kalyana Mandapas: Ornate pillared halls meant for the divine marriage ceremonies of deities.
5. Secular Architecture: Included structures like the Lotus Mahal and Elephant Stables, showing Indo-Islamic influence (arches and domes) within a Hindu kingdom.
6. Examples: Virupaksha Temple, Vittala Temple (Stone Chariot).

Role of European Trading Companies

From the 16th century, the Portuguese, followed by the Dutch, English, and French, entered Indian trade.

Impact and Role:

1. New Markets: They opened direct maritime trade routes to Europe, increasing the demand for Indian textiles and spices.
2. Bullion Inflow: Since Europe had few goods India wanted, they paid in gold and silver bullion, boosting the monetization of the Indian economy.
3. Cartaz System: The Portuguese controlled the sea routes and forced Indian ships to buy passes (Cartaz) to sail, altering traditional free trade dynamics.
4. Urbanization: Growth of port cities like Madras, Calcutta, and Bombay.
5. Factory System: They established fortified warehouses ('factories') which eventually became centers of political power.
6. Introduction of Crops: They introduced new crops like tobacco, potato, maize, and chili to India.

Pahari Painting

Pahari painting developed in the sub-Himalayan states (Himachal Pradesh/Jammu) in the 17th-19th centuries, often by artists migrating from the Mughal court during its decline.

1. Basholi School (Early Phase):

• Style: Bold, vigorous, and primitive. Deep reds and yellows.
• Features: Facial types characterized by a receding forehead and large, intense eyes.
• Themes: Illustrations of Rasamanjari.

2. Kangra School (Mature Phase):

• Style: More refined, lyrical, and delicate compared to Basholi. Influenced by the late Mughal style but more poetic.
• Themes: Central theme was Shringar (erotic love) featuring Radha and Krishna in natural settings (lush green hills, flowing rivers).
• Features: Use of soft colors, graceful lines, and minute details of female beauty.

Significance: It represented a spiritual union of human soul with God through the metaphor of love.

Comparison: Akbar vs. Aurangzeb (Culture)