Unit 5: Political centralization and forms of political legitimacy

1. Administrative Centralization under Akbar

The Mughal Empire, particularly under Akbar (r. 1556–1605), represented a shift from a loose tribal confederation to a highly centralized, bureaucratic empire. Akbar established a uniform system of administration that persisted, with modifications, until the decline of the empire.

A. Central Administration

The Emperor was the supreme head of the administration, commander-in-chief of the army, and the final arbiter of justice. A system of checks and balances was introduced to prevent any single minister from becoming too powerful.

• The Vakil: Originally the highest post (Prime Minister), held by Bairam Khan. After Bairam Khan’s exit, Akbar reduced the powers of this office to a titular head, distributing duties among other ministers.
• Diwan (Wazir): The head of the revenue and finance department. Responsible for imperial income and expenditure. He inspected the revenue collection of the provinces (Subas).
• Mir Bakshi: Head of the military department.
  • Responsible for the recruitment of soldiers, maintenance of the roster of troops, and the Mansabdari system.
  • He presented soldiers before the Emperor and issued payment orders (Sarkhat).
  • He was also the head of intelligence and information agencies (Barids and Waqia-navis).
• Mir Saman: In charge of the Imperial Household (Karkhanas). He managed the personal necessities of the Emperor and the manufacturing of articles for the court.
• Sadr-us-Sudur: Head of religious affairs and charitable grants (Suyurghal or Madad-i-Maash). He appointed Qazis (judges). Akbar later reduced the Sadr's power by resuming grant lands to the crown.

B. Provincial Administration (The Suba System)

In 1580, Akbar divided the empire into 12 provinces (Subas). Later, with the conquest of the Deccan, the number increased to 15. The administrative structure of the province mirrored the center to ensure control.

• Subedar (Governor): Head of the province, responsible for law and order and the military.
• Provincial Diwan: Responsible for revenue. Crucially, the Provincial Diwan answered directly to the Central Diwan, not the Subedar. This created a system of dual checking, preventing the Governor from becoming autonomous.
• Lower Administrative Units:
  • Sarkar: The Suba was divided into Sarkars (districts), headed by a Faujdar (law and order) and an Amalguzar (revenue collector).
  • Pargana: The Sarkar was divided into Parganas (sub-districts), headed by a Shiqdar (executive) and Amil (revenue).

2. The Mansab and Jagir Systems

These two institutions formed the "steel frame" of the Mughal state, organizing the nobility and the army while managing state revenue.

A. The Mansabdari System

Introduced by Akbar in 1571, this was a unique system that combined civil and military administration into a single service.

• Nature: Every official in the empire held a Mansab (rank/position). It was not hereditary; appointments and dismissals were strictly by the Emperor.
• Dual Rank (Zat and Sawar):
  • Zat: Determined the personal status of the officer in the hierarchy and his personal salary.
  • Sawar: Determined the number of cavalrymen (horsemen) the officer was required to maintain for the state.
• Classification:
  • First Class: Sawar rank equal to Zat rank.
  • Second Class: Sawar rank half or more of Zat rank.
  • Third Class: Sawar rank less than half of Zat rank.
• The Dagh and Chehra: To prevent corruption (e.g., presenting borrowed horses during inspection), Akbar enforced:
  • Dagh: Branding of horses.
  • Chehra: Descriptive rolls of soldiers.

B. The Jagirdari System

This was the mechanism used to pay the Mansabdars.

• Revenue Assignment: A Jagir was a piece of land assigned to a Mansabdar. The Jagirdar (holder) was entitled to collect the land revenue from that area as his salary.
• Not Land Ownership: The Jagir system was not feudal land ownership. The state owned the land; the Jagirdar only held the right to collect taxes.
• Transferability: A crucial feature was that Jagirs were transferred every 3 to 4 years. This prevented the nobility from developing local roots or power bases that could challenge the central authority.
• Khalisa vs. Jagir:
  • Khalisa: Crown lands where revenue went directly to the Imperial Treasury.
  • Jagir: Assigned lands where revenue went to the officer.

3. Mughal Theory of Kingship

The Mughal concept of sovereignty was a synthesis of Turko-Mongol traditions, Persian notions of divine kingship, and Indian political realities.

A. Evolutionary Context

• Turko-Mongol Legacy: The Timurids traditionally viewed sovereignty as shared among the family (coparcenary), leading to succession wars. The Mughals slowly moved toward centralization, though the absence of a clear law of primogeniture (eldest son succeeds) remained a destabilizing factor.
• The Title 'Padshah': Babur assumed the title Padshah to assert a sovereignty superior to the previous Sultans of Delhi (who theoretically bowed to the Caliph).

B. Abul Fazl’s Formulation (Akbar’s Reign)

Abul Fazl, Akbar’s court historian, articulated the mature Mughal theory of kingship in the Ain-i-Akbari.

• Farr-i-Izadi (Divine Light): Drawing on Persian philosophy (Suhrawardi), the King was viewed as the recipient of divine light (Farr-i-Izadi). He was chosen by God, making his authority independent of the Ulema (religious clergy).
• Insan-i-Kamil (The Perfect Man): The Emperor was portrayed as the perfect man who possessed the wisdom to guide his subjects spiritually and temporally.
• Paternalism: The King was the father of his people. His duty was to ensure the balance of the social order and protect the four essences of subjects: life (jan), property (mal), honor (namus), and faith (din).
• Justice: The primary justification for the King's existence was the administration of justice (Adl), ensuring the strong did not devour the weak.

4. Forms of Political Legitimation

The Mughals used various methods to manufacture consent and legitimize their rule over a diverse, largely non-Muslim population.

A. Genealogical Legitimacy

• Timurid-Chingizid Descent: The Mughals emphasized their descent from Timur (paternal) and Genghis Khan (maternal). This provided a "dynastic charisma" that elevated them above all other Indian nobles and ruling families.

B. Rituals and Court Culture

• Jharokha Darshan: Adopted by Akbar from Hindu kingship customs. The Emperor appeared daily at a balcony to the public. It allowed direct access to the king and visualized the monarch as the source of well-being (Darshan).
• Tula Dan (Weighing Ceremony): The Emperor was weighed against gold/silver/grain on his birthday, which was then distributed to the poor. This utilized Hindu ritual forms to gain local legitimacy.
• Robes of Honor (Khilat): The giving of robes worn by the Emperor symbolized the incorporation of the recipient into the body politic of the King.

C. Architectural Legitimation

• Grand capitals (Fatehpur Sikri, Shahjahanabad) and mausoleums (Taj Mahal) were built to project the power, stability, and wealth of the empire. The use of the "dome and arch" alongside indigenous Rajput elements symbolized a composite culture.

D. Universal Peace (Sulh-i-kul)

• By projecting the Emperor as the protector of all religions (not just Islam), the state legitimized its rule over the Hindu majority. The Emperor stood above sectarian strife.

5. State and Religion: Akbar and Aurangzeb

This topic highlights the two poles of Mughal religious policy: the syncretic, liberal approach of Akbar versus the orthodox, sharia-centric approach of Aurangzeb.

A. Akbar: The Architecture of Syncretism

Akbar’s religious policy evolved from orthodoxy to absolute tolerance.

1. Phase of Inquiry (The Ibadat Khana): In 1575, Akbar established the Hall of Prayer at Fatehpur Sikri. Initially open only to Sunni Muslims, he later opened it to Sufis, Shias, Hindus, Jains, Christians, and Zoroastrians. The debates convinced him that "truth is not the monopoly of any one religion."
2. The Mahzar (1579): A decree signed by leading Ulema that declared Akbar as the Imam-i-Adil (Just Ruler). It gave Akbar the authority to choose between conflicting interpretations of Islamic law, effectively curbing the political power of the orthodox Ulema.
3. Sulh-i-kul (Peace with All): This became the official state policy. It prohibited discrimination based on religion.
   • Abolition of Taxes: He abolished the Pilgrimage Tax (1563) and the Jizya (tax on non-Muslims) in 1564.
4. Tauhid-i-Ilahi (Din-i-Ilahi): Often misunderstood as a new religion, it was actually a Sufistic order of discipleship centered on loyalty to the Emperor. It had no scripture or priesthood.

B. Aurangzeb: The Turn to Orthodoxy

Aurangzeb’s reign (1658–1707) marked a reversal of the liberal trends, influenced by the Naqshbandi Sufi order and political exigencies.

1. Context of Accession: Aurangzeb ascended the throne after a bloody war of succession against his brother Dara Shikoh (who represented the liberal/syncretic tradition). Aurangzeb rallied the orthodox nobility by positioning himself as the defender of the faith.
2. Implementation of Sharia:
   • Appointment of Muhtasibs (censors of public morals) to enforce Islamic morality.
   • Forbidden practices: He banned music at court, stopped Jharokha Darshan (considering it idol worship), and discontinued the Tula Dan.
3. The Re-imposition of Jizya (1679): This is the most controversial aspect of his reign. It was reimposed ostensibly to rally Muslim support during the Rajput rebellions and Maratha wars.
4. Temple Policy:
   • Aurangzeb did not issue a blanket order to destroy all temples. His policy was usually to protect existing temples but prohibit the construction of new ones.
   • However, specific temples (e.g., Kashi Vishwanath, Mathura) were destroyed as punitive political measures against rebellious chieftains or in areas of uprising.
5. Political Reality vs. Religious Bigotry: Despite his orthodox reputation, the proportion of Hindus (especially Marathas) in the nobility actually increased under Aurangzeb (rising to roughly 33%) due to strategic recruitment during the Deccan expansion.

Summary Comparison