Unit4 - Subjective Questions

Tuzuk-i-Baburi, also known as Baburnama, is the autobiography of Babur, the founder of the Mughal Empire. It is considered one of the most authentic and valuable sources for this period.

• Nature of the Text: Written in Chagatai Turkish, it was later translated into Persian. It provides a candid account of Babur's life, failures, and triumphs.
• Geographical Descriptions: Babur meticulously recorded the flora, fauna, climate, and physical geography of Hindustan, contrasting it with Central Asia.
• Political Insight: It offers insights into the political condition of India on the eve of his invasion, describing the five Muslim and two Hindu kingdoms.
• Socio-Cultural Value: The memoirs shed light on the socio-economic conditions, the lifestyle of the nobility, and the lack of what Babur perceived as 'cultured society' in Northern India at the time.
• Honesty: Historians value it for its frankness; Babur did not hide his vices (like drinking) or his military setbacks.

The First Battle of Panipat ($1526$) marked the beginning of the Mughal Empire. Despite being outnumbered, Babur defeated the massive army of Ibrahim Lodi through superior military tactics:

1. Tulughma Strategy: This was an Ottoman maneuver involving the division of the army into center, left, and right wings, with further flanking parties designed to encircle the enemy from the rear.
2. Use of Artillery (Rumi Device): Babur effectively used gunpowder and cannons, managed by Ustad Ali and Mustafa. The sound and destruction of the cannons frightened Lodi's elephants, causing them to trample their own troops.
3. Defensive Arrangement: Babur protected his front with a line of carts (araba) tied together with hide ropes, leaving gaps for cavalry to charge. This neutralized the Afghan shock charge.
4. Discipline: The Mughal army was a disciplined, battle-hardened cavalry force, whereas Lodi's army was largely a feudal levy lacking cohesion.

While Panipat gave Babur Delhi and Agra, the Battle of Khanwa ($1527$) against Rana Sanga of Mewar was crucial for the actual survival of the empire.

• Formidable Opposition: Rana Sanga had united various Rajput clans and even some Afghan chiefs against Babur, posing a far greater threat than Ibrahim Lodi.
• Declaration of Jihad: To galvanize his dispirited troops, Babur declared the battle a Jihad (Holy War) and renounced wine, turning the conflict into a religious crusade.
• Crushing Rajput Power: The Mughal victory shattered the Rajput confederacy, preventing the resurgence of Rajput dominance in Northern India for decades.
• Shift of Centre: It shifted the political centre of gravity from Kabul to Hindustan, ensuring the Mughals were here to stay rather than just raid and leave.
• Title of Ghazi: After the victory, Babur assumed the title of Ghazi (Warrior for the Faith).

The Mansabdari System was the steel frame of the Mughal military and civil administration, formally organized by Akbar in $1571$.

Key Features:

1. Dual Rank (Zat and Sawar):
   • Zat: Indicated the personal rank and salary of the officer.
   • Sawar: Indicated the number of cavalrymen (horses and horsemen) the Mansabdar was required to maintain.
2. Grading System: It was a single service combining both civil and military responsibilities. Ranks ranged from $10$ to $10,000$ (later raised for princes). Officers were classified into three grades based on the ratio of Sawar to Zat.
3. Payment: Mansabdars were paid either in cash (Naqdi) or through assignment of revenue rights (Jagir). Jagirs were not hereditary and were transferable.
4. Dagh and Chehra: To prevent corruption, Akbar enforced the branding of horses (Dagh) and the maintenance of descriptive rolls of soldiers (Chehra).
5. Direct Appointment: The Emperor had the sole power to appoint, promote, or dismiss Mansabdars, ensuring loyalty to the throne.

Akbar's religious policy evolved from orthodoxy to liberalism, aiming to create a secular state foundation.

• Early Measures: He abolished the Pilgrim Tax ($1563$) and Jizya ($1564$), signaling equality for his Hindu subjects.
• Ibadat Khana (House of Worship): Established in $1575$ at Fatehpur Sikri, it started as a gathering for Muslim theologians. Later, Akbar opened it to Hindus, Jains, Christians, and Zoroastrians. The heated debates convinced Akbar that no single religion possessed the absolute truth.
• Mazhar (Infallibility Decree): In $1579$, he issued a decree asserting his right to interpret Islamic laws in case of disputes among the Ulema.
• Sulh-i-kul: Meaning 'Peace with All', this was the core of his state policy. It promoted religious tolerance, prohibiting discrimination based on faith.
• Din-i-Ilahi: In $1582$, he propounded a syncretic code of conduct (not a new religion) called Tauhid-i-Ilahi, emphasizing monotheism and loyalty to the emperor.

The Zabti System (also known as the Dahsala System) was a standardized land revenue system introduced by Akbar's finance minister, Raja Todar Mal, in $1580$.

• Survey and Measurement: Land was measured using the Ilahi Gaz (standardized yard) and bamboo rods joined by iron rings (Tanab) to ensure accuracy.
• Classification of Land: Land was classified based on continuity of cultivation:
  1. Polaj: Cultivated annually.
  2. Parauti: Fallow for a year or two.
  3. Chachar: Fallow for 3-4 years.
  4. Banjar: Uncultivated for 5+ years.
• Assessment: The average produce of the last 10 years (Dahsala) was calculated. The state's share was fixed at one-third of the average produce.
• Payment: Revenue was generally collected in cash. Prices were fixed based on local productivity and market rates.
• Significance: It provided stability to the state treasury and reduced the harassment of peasants by removing the uncertainty of annual assessments.

Akbar realized that to rule India effectively, he needed the support of the Rajputs, the indigenous martial class.

• Matrimonial Alliances: Akbar married the daughter of Raja Bharmal of Amber (Jodha Bai). This was not forced but a strategic alliance. Unlike previous rulers, Akbar allowed Rajput wives to practice their own religion inside the palace.
• Appointment to High Posts: Rajputs were inducted into the Mughal nobility and given high Mansabs. Raja Man Singh and Raja Todar Mal rose to the highest ranks.
• Internal Autonomy: Rajput rulers were generally allowed to retain their ancestral lands (Watan Jagirs) in exchange for accepting Mughal suzerainty and paying tribute.
• Impact on Consolidation: This policy secured the loyalty of the bravest warriors in India, who fought for the Mughals in campaigns from Kabul to the Deccan. It also ushered in a period of Indo-Islamic cultural synthesis.

Nur Jahan, the twentieth and most beloved wife of Jahangir, exercised immense influence over the Mughal administration.

• The Junta: Historians suggest the existence of a 'Junta' (faction) comprising Nur Jahan, her father Itimad-ud-Daulah, her brother Asaf Khan, and Prince Khurram (later Shahjahan). This group supposedly dominated court politics between $1611$ and $1622$.
• Administrative Control: As Jahangir's health declined (due to asthma and alcohol), Nur Jahan effectively ruled the empire. Coins were struck in her name, and she sat in the Jharokha to receive audiences.
• Political Impact: While she was a capable administrator, her dominance caused friction. Her attempt to promote her son-in-law, Shahryar, over Shahjahan led to Shahjahan's rebellion, which destabilized the empire temporarily.
• Cultural Influence: She had a great impact on fashion, cosmetics, and architecture (e.g., the tomb of Itimad-ud-Daulah).

Jahangir prided himself on being a dispenser of justice.

• Zanjir-i-Adl (Chain of Justice): Upon his accession, he installed a golden chain with bells connecting his palace to the banks of the Yamuna river. Any aggrieved subject could pull the chain to demand a personal hearing with the Emperor, bypassing bureaucratic hurdles.
• Twelve Ordinances: He issued twelve edicts (Dastur-ul-Amal) aimed at the welfare of the people, which included:
  • Prohibition of the manufacture and sale of wine and intoxicants.
  • Abolition of inhuman punishments (like cutting off noses or ears).
  • Prohibition of forced seizure of property.
  • Building of hospitals and recruiting physicians.
• Impartiality: He was known to punish powerful nobles and even his own empress's relations if found guilty of oppression.

Shahjahan's reign () witnessed the climax of Mughal architectural achievements, characterized by the extensive use of white marble and pietra dura inlay work.

• The Taj Mahal: The pinnacle of Mughal architecture, built in Agra for his wife Mumtaz Mahal. It represents perfect symmetry and exquisite craftsmanship.
• Red Fort (Lal Qila): Built in his new capital, Shahjahanabad (Delhi), featuring the Diwan-i-Aam and Diwan-i-Khas.
• Jama Masjid: One of the largest mosques in India, built in Delhi.
• Peacock Throne: The Takht-i-Taus, a jeweled throne situated in the Red Fort, symbolizing the immense wealth of the empire.
• Stylistic Features: Transition from red sandstone (Akbar's time) to white marble, use of bulbous domes, foliated arches, and complex geometric gardens.

This era marked a period of peace, prosperity, and cultural refinement, justifying the title 'Golden Age'.

In $1657$, Shahjahan fell ill, triggering a bloody civil war among his four sons: Dara Shikoh (Crown Prince), Shuja (Governor of Bengal), Aurangzeb (Governor of Deccan), and Murad (Governor of Gujarat).

• Ideological Conflict: It was not just political but ideological. Dara represented the liberal, syncretic tradition of Akbar, while Aurangzeb represented the orthodox Sunni faction.
• Key Battles:
  • Battle of Dharmat ($1658$): Aurangzeb and Murad defeated the imperial army.
  • Battle of Samugarh ($1658$): The decisive battle where Aurangzeb defeated Dara Shikoh.
• Outcome: Aurangzeb systematically eliminated his brothers (Dara was executed, Shuja fled, Murad was imprisoned/executed) and imprisoned his father, Shahjahan, in the Agra Fort.
• Consequence: The war depleted the treasury and marked the ascension of orthodoxy, ending the liberal phase of the empire.

Aurangzeb's religious policy marked a reversal of the tolerant policies of his predecessors, aiming to transform India into an orthodox Islamic state.

Key Measures:

1. Re-imposition of Jizya ($1679$): The poll tax on non-Muslims was brought back, causing widespread resentment.
2. Temple Destruction: Orders were issued to destroy specific Hindu temples (e.g., Kashi Vishwanath, Keshavdev at Mathura), often as political punishment for rebellions.
3. Moral Policing: He appointed Muhtasibs (Censors of Public Morals) to enforce Islamic law (Sharia) and banned music at court.
4. Restrictions: He discontinued the practice of Jharokha Darshan and Tuladan (weighing ceremony), considering them un-Islamic.

Contrast with Akbar:

• Akbar aimed for Sulh-i-kul (Universal Peace) and integration; Aurangzeb emphasized exclusivity.
• Akbar integrated Rajputs; Aurangzeb's policies alienated them (e.g., the conflict with Marwar).
• While Akbar built a national monarchy, Aurangzeb's policies sowed seeds of discord that contributed to the empire's decline.

Aurangzeb spent the last 25 years of his life () in the Deccan, aiming to crush the Marathas and annex the Shia Sultanates.

• Annexation: He conquered Bijapur ($1686$) and Golconda ($1687$). While this expanded the empire to its greatest territorial extent, it removed the buffer states that kept the Marathas in check.
• Maratha War: Despite capturing and executing Sambhaji ($1689$), Aurangzeb could not crush the Maratha spirit. The war became a 'people's war,' draining Mughal resources.
• 'Deccan Ulcer': The prolonged campaign depleted the royal treasury and demoralized the army. The administration in North India suffered due to the Emperor's long absence.
• Jagirdari Crisis: The annexation created a crisis where there were too many nobles (Mansabdars) waiting for Jagirs, but not enough productive land (Paibaqi) to distribute, leading to agrarian unrest.

Foreign accounts provide an outsider's perspective on the Mughal court, trade, and socio-economic conditions, filling gaps left by court chronicles which were often biased towards the Emperor.

Key Travelers:

1. Sir Thomas Roe and William Hawkins (Jahangir's Reign): Their accounts detail the court etiquette, the Emperor's personality, and the initial efforts of the East India Company to establish trade factories.
2. Francois Bernier (Shahjahan/Aurangzeb): A French physician, his book 'Travels in the Mughal Empire' provides a detailed analysis of the War of Succession, the ownership of land (claiming the King owned all land), and the military organization.
3. Niccolao Manucci: An Italian traveler whose 'Storia do Mogor' offers gossipy but detailed accounts of the harem and court intrigues under Aurangzeb.

These sources are vital for understanding the economic disparity and the lifestyle of the common people.

Ain-i-Akbari is the third volume of the Akbarnama, written by Akbar's court historian and friend, Abul Fazl.

• Administrative Manual: unlike the first two volumes which deal with history, the Ain is a detailed administrative manual and statistical gazetteer of the empire.
• Content: It covers regulations regarding the imperial household, army, revenue administration, and justice.
• Statistics: It provides granular data on crop yields, prices, wages, and revenue rates across different provinces (Subahs).
• Cultural Encyclopedia: It documents the social customs, religious beliefs, literature, and philosophy of the diverse population of India.
• Importance: It is the primary source for understanding the institutional framework and the agrarian system of Akbar's reign, showcasing the organizational genius of the Mughals.

The relationship between the Mughals and the Sikhs shifted from friendship to hostility.

• Akbar: Maintained cordial relations with Guru Amar Das and Guru Ram Das. He granted the land in Amritsar where the Golden Temple was built.
• Jahangir: Relations deteriorated. Guru Arjan Dev was executed in $1606$ for allegedly blessing the rebel prince Khusrau. This turned the Sikhs towards militarization.
• Shahjahan: Skirmishes occurred between Mughal troops and Guru Hargobind over hunting issues and policy, leading the Guru to shift base to Kiratpur.
• Aurangzeb: The conflict peaked. Guru Tegh Bahadur, the ninth Guru, was executed in $1675$ in Delhi for refusing to convert to Islam and for championing the rights of Kashmiri Brahmins.
• Guru Gobind Singh: In response, the tenth Guru established the Khalsa in $1699$, creating a martial brotherhood that waged a relentless struggle against the Mughals, contributing significantly to the empire's decline.

Combatants: The battle was fought between the Mughal army, led by Bairam Khan (acting as regent for the young Akbar), and the Hindu general Hemu (Vikramaditya), who led the Afghan forces of Adil Shah Suri.

Context: Following Humayun's death, Hemu had captured Delhi and Agra, threatening to extinguish the Mughal restoration before it began.

The Battle:

• Hemu's army was numerically superior and relied heavily on war elephants.
• The Mughals were on the verge of defeat when a stray arrow struck Hemu in the eye, rendering him unconscious.
• Seeing their leader fall, the Afghan army panicked and fled.

Outcome: Hemu was captured and executed. The victory re-established Mughal control over Delhi and Agra, ending the Afghan threat and securing Akbar's throne.

Shahjahan dreamed of recovering his ancestral lands of Balkh and Badakhshan in Central Asia (Trans-Oxiana).

• Objectives: To reclaim the Timurid homeland and to secure a scientific frontier for the defense of India.
• The Campaign (): Prince Murad and later Aurangzeb were sent with large armies. They initially captured Balkh.
• Challenges: The Mughals faced hostile geography, harsh winters, and the fierce resistance of the Uzbeks. The Mughal method of warfare was ill-suited for the mountainous region.
• Failure: The campaign was a disaster. The Mughals were forced to retreat, suffering heavy casualties from the cold and guerilla attacks.
• Cost: It cost the treasury over 40 million rupees with no territorial gain, exposing the limits of Mughal military power beyond the Hindu Kush.

These revolts were agrarian and religious uprisings indicating growing discontent.

• Jat Revolt ($1669$): Led by Gokula, a Zamindar of Tilpat (near Mathura). The primary cause was agrarian distress and the oppression by local Faujdars, aggravated by Aurangzeb's religious policies (temple destruction). Though Gokula was killed, the Jats continued a guerilla war under Rajaram and Churaman, eventually carving out the Kingdom of Bharatpur.
• Satnami Revolt ($1672$): The Satnamis were a sect of creating Hindu devotees in Narnaul. A minor dispute between a Satnami and a Mughal soldier escalated into a full-scale rebellion. They captured Narnaul but were eventually crushed by a large imperial army.

Significance: These revolts showed that the Mughal administrative machinery was oppressive to the peasantry and that the central authority was facing resistance in the heartland of the empire (near Delhi).

The decline was a complex process involving administrative, economic, and political failures.

1. Aurangzeb's Policies: His religious intolerance alienated Rajputs and Sikhs. His Deccan policy drained the treasury and kept him away from Delhi for too long.
2. Weak Successors: The Later Mughals (after $1707$) were generally incompetent ('Bahadur Shah the Heedless', 'Muhammad Shah Rangeela') and could not control the powerful nobility.
3. Jagirdari Crisis: There was a shortage of Paibaqi (land to be assigned as Jagirs), leading to intense factionalism among nobles fighting for good lands.
4. Military Stagnation: The Mughal army failed to modernize (especially in artillery and naval power) compared to European powers.
5. Foreign Invasions: Nadir Shah ($1739$) and Ahmad Shah Abdali looted Delhi, exposing the empire's hollowness.
6. Rise of Regional Powers: Marathas, Jats, and regional governors (Bengal, Awadh, Hyderabad) declared virtual independence.