Unit 6: Crop Production Package of Practices for Kharif Forage Crops - Subjective Questions

Origin and distribution

• Sorghum, Sorghum bicolor, is believed to have originated in north-eastern Africa, particularly Ethiopia and Sudan.
• It later spread to Asia, Europe, Australia and the Americas.
• In India, forage sorghum is widely grown in Maharashtra, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh, Haryana, Punjab, Tamil Nadu and Telangana.

Economic importance

• It is an important quick-growing and drought-tolerant forage crop.
• The green fodder is palatable, nutritious and rich in carbohydrates.
• It can be fed as green fodder or preserved as silage and hay.
• Both single-cut and multi-cut types are available, ensuring fodder supply over a long period.
• Sorghum performs well under rainfed conditions and provides fodder during periods of moisture scarcity.
• Its stalks and crop residues are also used as dry fodder.

Young or drought-stressed plants may contain excessive hydrocyanic acid, so they should not be fed before they attain a safe stage of growth.

Climatic requirements

• Sorghum is a warm-season crop and grows best at temperatures of about –.
• It requires warm weather, bright sunshine and a frost-free growing period.
• It is drought tolerant because of its deep and extensive root system.
• A rainfall of approximately – mm, when well distributed, is generally suitable.
• Waterlogging, prolonged cloudy weather and severe frost adversely affect its growth.

Soil requirements

• It can be cultivated on a wide range of soils, from sandy loams to clay loams.
• Deep, fertile and well-drained loam to clay-loam soil is ideal.
• A soil pH of about – is suitable.
• The crop tolerates moderate alkalinity and salinity better than maize, but it does not tolerate prolonged water stagnation.
• Good drainage and adequate soil fertility promote rapid growth, tillering and high green-fodder yield.

Important varieties and hybrids

• Single-cut types: Pusa Chari 1, Pusa Chari 6, Pusa Chari 9, HC 136, HC 171, CSV 21F and CSV 30F.
• Multi-cut types: SSG 59-3, COFS 29, COFS 31 and CSH 20MF.
• The exact choice should be based on state recommendations, rainfall, irrigation facilities and the required number of cuts.

Hydrocyanic acid hazard

• Young sorghum contains the cyanogenic glucoside dhurrin, which may release hydrocyanic acid or HCN.
• HCN concentration is often high in very young plants, ratoon shoots and drought- or frost-stressed crops.
• Excess HCN interferes with cellular respiration in livestock and may cause poisoning.

Precautions

• Do not harvest or graze very young plants, particularly before about – days after sowing.
• Avoid feeding freshly wilted, drought-stressed or frost-damaged sorghum.
• Irrigate a drought-stressed crop and allow normal growth to resume before harvesting.
• Ensiling and mixing sorghum with other safe fodders can reduce the risk, but local livestock advisories should always be followed.

Land preparation and sowing

• Prepare a fine, firm seedbed with one deep ploughing followed by two or three harrowings.
• Incorporate about – tonnes of well-decomposed farmyard manure per hectare.
• Sow with the onset of the monsoon, generally during June–July, or as an irrigated crop in the recommended season.
• Use approximately – kg seed per hectare for a dense fodder stand.
• Sow in rows about – cm apart at a depth of – cm.

Nutrient management

• A general dose is about – kg nitrogen and – kg phosphorus as per hectare.
• Apply all phosphorus and half the nitrogen at sowing.
• Top-dress the remaining nitrogen about – days after sowing.
• Fertilizer rates should be adjusted according to soil-test results.

Water and weed management

• Provide irrigation immediately after sowing when soil moisture is inadequate.
• Irrigate at intervals of about – days, depending on soil and weather.
• One hand weeding or hoeing at – days usually controls early weeds.

Harvesting

• Harvest at the flowering to early-dough stage for a suitable balance between yield and quality.
• Avoid feeding very young growth because of the danger of HCN poisoning.

Single-cut sorghum

• The crop is normally ready about – days after sowing, depending on variety and climate.
• Harvesting around flowering provides a good combination of green-fodder yield, digestibility and dry matter.
• A well-managed crop commonly produces about – tonnes of green fodder per hectare.

Multi-cut sorghum

• The first cut is generally taken about – days after sowing.
• Subsequent cuts may be taken at intervals of approximately – days.
• A stubble height of about – cm should be retained to encourage rapid regeneration.
• Nitrogen is top-dressed and irrigation is given after every cut.
• Depending on variety, growing period and management, total annual green-fodder yield may reach – tonnes per hectare or more.

Harvesting should be avoided when the crop is extremely young or under severe drought stress because such material may contain unsafe levels of HCN.

Origin and distribution

• Maize, Zea mays, originated in Mexico and Central America.
• It is now cultivated throughout tropical, subtropical and temperate regions of the world.
• In India, forage maize is grown extensively in Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and other dairy-producing regions.

Economic importance

• Maize produces succulent, palatable and highly digestible green fodder.
• It is rich in carbohydrates and is particularly suitable for silage making because of its high soluble-sugar content.
• It supplies large quantities of fodder within a short growing period.
• The crop is generally free from the HCN problem associated with young sorghum.
• Maize fodder supports milk production when combined with protein-rich legume fodders such as cowpea.
• Its stover is also used as dry roughage, bedding material and a source of organic matter.

Climate

• Forage maize requires warm, frost-free conditions.
• A temperature range of approximately – is favourable for rapid growth.
• It needs adequate moisture but is sensitive to both drought and waterlogging, especially during establishment.
• Bright sunshine encourages vigorous growth and carbohydrate accumulation.

Soil

• Deep, fertile, well-drained loam or silt-loam soil is ideal.
• A pH of about – is generally suitable.
• Heavy waterlogged soils and strongly saline or alkaline soils should be avoided.

Important forage varieties

• Commonly recommended examples include African Tall, J-1006, Vijay Composite, Moti Composite and Pratap Makka Chari 6.
• Regional composite or hybrid cultivars may also be used when recommended for fodder production.
• Varieties are selected for tall growth, high leaf-to-stem ratio, lodging resistance, palatability and high green-fodder yield.

Variety selection and sowing season should follow the recommendations of the concerned state agricultural university.

Field preparation and sowing

• Prepare a fine, weed-free seedbed and incorporate – tonnes of farmyard manure per hectare.
• Sow during June–July under rainfed kharif conditions or in the locally recommended irrigated season.
• Use about – kg seed per hectare.
• Sow in rows – cm apart and place the seed about – cm deep.

Fertilizer management

• A general recommendation is – kg nitrogen and – kg per hectare.
• Apply all phosphorus and about half the nitrogen at sowing.
• Apply the remaining nitrogen about – days after sowing.

Interculture and irrigation

• Keep the crop weed-free during the first – days through hoeing or recommended herbicides.
• Irrigate according to soil moisture; avoid water stagnation.
• Knee-high growth and tasselling are important moisture-sensitive stages.

Harvest and yield

• Harvest at tasselling to milk or early-dough stage for nutritious fodder and good silage quality.
• Green-fodder yield generally ranges from – tonnes per hectare under good management.

Thus, sorghum is preferred under relatively dry conditions, whereas maize is favoured where fertile soil and dependable moisture are available. Mixing either cereal fodder with a legume improves the protein content of the ration.

Origin and distribution

• Napier grass, Cenchrus purpureus or Pennisetum purpureum, originated in tropical Africa.
• It is cultivated throughout the humid and sub-humid tropics of Africa, Asia and the Americas.
• In India, it is commonly grown under irrigated conditions in southern, western and eastern states and around organized dairy farms.

Economic importance

• It is a vigorous, tall-growing perennial fodder grass.
• It produces several cuttings and very high quantities of green fodder annually.
• Bajra–Napier hybrids combine the high-yielding ability of Napier grass with desirable qualities of pearl millet.
• It is valuable for stall feeding, cut-and-carry systems and year-round fodder production.
• It responds strongly to irrigation, manure and nitrogen fertilization.
• It also helps protect bunds and sloping land from erosion.

Because old stems become coarse and less palatable, the crop should be harvested at regular intervals while the growth is leafy and tender.

Climatic requirements

• Napier is a tropical and subtropical perennial grass.
• Warm and humid conditions with temperatures of about – favour rapid growth.
• It requires adequate moisture and responds well to irrigation.
• Growth slows during cold weather, and severe frost can damage the aerial parts.

Soil requirements

• Deep, fertile and well-drained loam or clay-loam soil is preferred.
• It performs best in soils rich in organic matter.
• A pH of about – is generally suitable.
• Although the crop tolerates brief moisture excess, prolonged waterlogging should be avoided.

Important cultivars

• Examples include NB-21, NB-37, CO 3, CO 4, CO 5, CO(BN) 5, PBN 233 and DHN 6.
• Cultivar recommendations vary by state and production environment.

A good cultivar should possess high tillering ability, a high leaf-to-stem ratio, soft stems, rapid regeneration, resistance to pests and diseases, and high annual green-fodder yield.

Establishment

• Hybrid Napier is commonly sterile and is therefore propagated through rooted slips or stem cuttings.
• Prepare the field thoroughly and incorporate about – tonnes of farmyard manure per hectare.
• Plant rooted slips or stem cuttings at approximately cm or cm spacing, according to cultivar and local recommendation.
• Plant at the onset of the monsoon or whenever reliable irrigation is available.

Nutrient and water management

• Apply phosphorus and potash as a basal dose based on soil testing.
• Apply about kg nitrogen per hectare at establishment and – kg nitrogen after each cut.
• Irrigate immediately after planting and subsequently at intervals of about – days, depending on soil and season.
• Carry out gap filling and one or two weedings during establishment.

Harvesting

• Take the first cut approximately – days after planting.
• Take subsequent cuts every – days.
• Leave a stubble height of about – cm for quick regeneration.

Yield

• Under good irrigation and nutrient management, hybrid Napier may produce about – tonnes of green fodder per hectare annually; superior cultivars under intensive management can yield still more.

Origin and distribution

• Guinea grass, Megathyrsus maximus or Panicum maximum, originated in tropical Africa.
• It is now distributed throughout tropical and subtropical regions of Africa, Asia, Australia and the Americas.
• In India, it is cultivated mainly in warm, humid regions, orchards, plantations and irrigated fodder farms.

Economic importance

• It is a leafy, tufted and perennial fodder grass.
• Its foliage is palatable and suitable for grazing as well as cut-and-carry feeding.
• It produces repeated cuttings and can remain productive for several years under good management.
• Guinea grass performs well under partial shade and is therefore useful in orchards and plantation systems.
• It may be conserved as hay or silage when harvested at the appropriate stage.
• Its fibrous roots improve soil cover and help reduce erosion.

Frequent harvesting is essential because over-mature grass becomes stemmy, fibrous and less digestible.

Soil and climate

• Guinea grass grows best in warm and humid conditions at about –.
• It tolerates partial shade but is sensitive to severe frost and prolonged drought.
• Fertile, well-drained loam or clay-loam soils rich in organic matter are ideal.
• A soil pH of about – is generally suitable.

Varieties

• Important examples include Hamil, Riversdale, Haritha, Makueni and CO 2.
• Locally recommended cultivars should be selected for leafiness, persistence and yield.

Cultural practices

• Propagate through rooted slips or seed; rooted slips give faster and more uniform establishment.
• Plant slips at about cm spacing. If seed is used, a seed rate of approximately – kg/ha may be adopted.
• Apply – tonnes of farmyard manure per hectare and basal phosphorus according to soil testing.
• Apply nitrogen at establishment and after each cut.
• Irrigate immediately after planting and thereafter according to soil moisture.
• Take the first cut about – days after planting and later cuts every – days.
• Annual green-fodder yield is commonly about – tonnes per hectare under good management.

Hybrid Napier is preferred for maximum biomass under intensive irrigated farming, whereas guinea grass is especially useful in humid, partially shaded and plantation environments.

Origin and distribution

• Cowpea, Vigna unguiculata, is generally considered to have originated in Africa.
• It is widely cultivated in tropical and subtropical Africa, Asia, the Americas and other warm regions.
• In India, fodder cowpea is grown in Rajasthan, Gujarat, Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu.

Economic importance

• Cowpea is a fast-growing, palatable and protein-rich leguminous fodder crop.
• It improves the nutritive value of cereal fodders when grown in mixtures with sorghum, maize or pearl millet.
• Root nodules containing Rhizobium fix atmospheric nitrogen and improve soil fertility.
• The crop provides good soil cover, suppresses weeds and reduces erosion.
• It can be used as green fodder, hay, silage mixture, green manure and, in suitable varieties, pulse grain.
• Cowpea is particularly valuable in crop rotations because of its short duration and beneficial residual effect on the following crop.

Climatic requirements

• Cowpea is a warm-season crop and grows well at approximately –.
• It is moderately drought tolerant but is sensitive to frost and prolonged waterlogging.
• Warm weather and moderate rainfall favour rapid vegetative growth.

Soil requirements

• Well-drained sandy-loam to clay-loam soils are suitable.
• The crop performs best at a soil pH of about –.
• Highly saline, strongly alkaline and poorly drained soils should be avoided.

Important fodder varieties

• Examples include C 152, UPC 287, UPC 5286, UPC 622, Bundel Lobia 1, Bundel Lobia 2, CO 5 and CO(FC) 8.
• Variety recommendations differ among states and seasons.

Desirable varietal features include rapid early growth, profuse branching, high leaf-to-stem ratio, delayed flowering, resistance to diseases and high green-fodder yield.

Land preparation and sowing

• Prepare a fine, well-drained seedbed and incorporate about – tonnes of farmyard manure per hectare.
• Sow with the onset of the monsoon, generally during June–July.
• Use about – kg seed per hectare for a pure fodder crop.
• Sow in rows – cm apart at a depth of about – cm.
• Treat seed with a suitable cowpea Rhizobium culture, particularly where cowpea has not recently been grown.

Nutrient management

• Apply a starter dose of about – kg nitrogen and – kg per hectare.
• Apply potassium and micronutrients according to soil-test recommendations.

Water and weed management

• Provide irrigation when rainfall is inadequate, particularly during establishment and branching.
• Avoid water stagnation.
• One weeding or hoeing at about – days after sowing is usually beneficial.

Harvest and yield

• Harvest at about flowering or early pod formation for high protein content and palatability.
• The crop usually yields approximately – tonnes of green fodder per hectare under good management.

Origin and distribution

• Cluster bean or guar, Cyamopsis tetragonoloba, is considered to have originated in the Africa–Asia region and was domesticated in the Indian subcontinent.
• India is its principal producer, with major cultivation in Rajasthan, Haryana, Gujarat, Punjab and parts of Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh.

Economic importance

• It is used as green fodder, dry fodder, green manure, vegetable and seed crop.
• Its seed endosperm provides guar gum, an industrial product used in food, textiles, paper, pharmaceuticals and oil drilling.
• Being a legume, it fixes atmospheric nitrogen and improves soil fertility.
• It is highly valued in dry and semi-arid farming systems.

Soil and climate

• Cluster bean requires warm weather and grows well at –.
• It is drought and heat tolerant but sensitive to frost and waterlogging.
• Well-drained sandy-loam to loam soils with a pH of about – are suitable.

Varieties

• Fodder or dual-purpose examples include FS 277, HFG 119, Bundel Guar 1, Bundel Guar 2 and regional selections.
• The locally recommended variety should be selected according to fodder purpose, rainfall and maturity duration.

For cluster bean, the field should be kept weed-free during the first month, and irrigation should be provided only when rainfall is inadequate. Both crops should be harvested before stems and pods become coarse. They may also be grown with cereal fodders to improve protein content, palatability and overall fodder quality.