Unit 3: Crop Production Package of Practices for Kharif Pulses

I. Orientation: Kharif Pulse Production

Kharif pulses are leguminous grain crops sown with the onset of the south-west monsoon, generally during June-July, and harvested from September onward. Pigeon pea, mung bean and urd bean are important sources of dietary protein and improve soil fertility through symbiotic biological nitrogen fixation by Rhizobium bacteria.

• Defining characteristics:
  • Season: Cultivation is mainly rainfed during the warm and humid kharif season.
  • Produce: Mature dry seeds are consumed as whole grain or split dal; green pods and sprouts are also used.
  • Nitrogen fixation: Root nodules convert atmospheric nitrogen into plant-available forms, reducing dependence on nitrogenous fertilizers.
  • Cropping role: Short-duration pulses fit into intercropping, catch-cropping and multiple-cropping systems; pigeon pea is a longer-duration crop.
  • Major constraints: Erratic rainfall, waterlogging, poor plant population, weeds, insect pests and diseases frequently reduce productivity.
  • General principle: Timely sowing, suitable varieties, healthy seed, seed treatment, balanced nutrition and effective drainage are central to successful production.
  • Seed inoculation convention: Fungicide-treated seed is dried in shade before inoculation with crop-specific Rhizobium and phosphate-solubilizing bacteria; inoculated seed is sown promptly.
  • Yield expression: Grain and straw yields are normally reported in tonnes per hectare (t/ha) or quintals per hectare (q/ha), where 1 t/ha equals 10 q/ha.

II. Pigeon Pea — A Deep-Rooted, Long-Duration Pulse

Pigeon pea or red gram, Cajanus cajan (L.) Millsp., is an erect, branching pulse grown as a sole crop or intercrop. Its deep root system provides greater drought tolerance than most annual pulses, although the crop remains sensitive to waterlogging and frost.

A. Origin

Pigeon pea is generally considered to have originated and been domesticated in the Indian subcontinent.

• Evidence of origin: India possesses extensive diversity in cultivated pigeon pea and related wild forms.
• Historical spread: The crop moved from India to eastern Africa and subsequently to other tropical regions through ancient trade and migration.
• Secondary diversity: Eastern Africa is recognized as an important secondary centre because numerous locally adapted forms occur there.
• Botanical identity: It belongs to the family Fabaceae and is predominantly self-pollinated, although insect-mediated natural cross-pollination can occur.

B. Geographical Distribution

Pigeon pea is cultivated throughout tropical and subtropical regions, particularly where rainfall is moderate and the growing season is warm.

• World distribution: Major production occurs in India, Myanmar, Malawi, Tanzania, Kenya and other parts of Asia, Africa and the Caribbean.
• Indian distribution: Important producing states include Maharashtra, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Gujarat, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh and Jharkhand.
• Production environment: It is common in semi-arid rainfed farming and is frequently intercropped with sorghum, pearl millet, maize, cotton, soybean or groundnut.
• Regional adaptation: Early varieties suit short rainy seasons and northern rotations, while medium- and long-duration varieties suit central and southern India.

C. Economic Importance

Pigeon pea is valued as food, fodder, fuel and a soil-improving component of dryland agriculture.

• Food value: Split seed produces arhar or tur dal containing approximately 20-22% protein.
• Nutritional role: The grain supplies lysine-rich protein that complements cereal-based diets, though it is relatively deficient in sulfur-containing amino acids.
• By-products: Pod walls, leaves and broken grain are used as livestock feed; dry stems serve as fuel, fencing or thatching material.
• Soil benefits: Leaf fall adds organic matter, while nodulated roots contribute biologically fixed nitrogen to the farming system.
• Risk reduction: Deep roots exploit moisture and nutrients below the rooting zone of many companion crops, making pigeon pea useful in intercropping.

D. Soil and Climatic Requirements

Pigeon pea performs best under warm conditions, moderate rainfall and well-drained soils.

• Temperature: About 20-30°C supports germination and vegetative growth; frost and prolonged low temperature damage the crop.
• Rainfall: Approximately 600-1,000 mm of well-distributed rainfall is suitable, followed by relatively dry weather during flowering and maturity.
• Moisture response: Established plants tolerate drought, but water stress at flowering and pod filling reduces pod set and seed size.
• Soil: Well-drained loam to clay-loam soils are preferred; deep black soils provide useful stored moisture for long-duration cultivars.
• Soil reaction: A near-neutral range of about pH 6.5-7.5 is favourable, although adapted cultivars tolerate a wider range.
• Unsuitable conditions: Standing water promotes root injury and wilt; saline, strongly acidic and poorly drained fields should be avoided.

E. Varieties

Variety selection depends on crop duration, rainfall, disease pressure and the intended cropping system.

• Early-duration varieties: UPAS 120, ICPL 88039 (LRG 41) and Pusa 992 can fit into shorter rotations, subject to regional recommendation.
• Medium-duration varieties: Asha (ICPL 87119), Maruti (ICP 8863), BSMR 736 and BSMR 853 are cultivated in suitable production zones.
• Long-duration varieties: Bahar and Narendra Arhar-1 are examples suited to longer growing periods in parts of northern India.
• Hybrid option: ICPH 2671 is a commercial pigeon pea hybrid recommended in specified regions.
• Selection criteria: Farmers should prioritize locally notified varieties with resistance or tolerance to Fusarium wilt, sterility mosaic disease and major insect pests.

F. Cultural Practices

Successful pigeon pea cultivation requires timely establishment, wide spacing, early weed control and protection during flowering and pod development.

• Land preparation: One deep ploughing followed by two harrowings produces a firm, weed-free seedbed; ridges or broad-bed furrows improve drainage.
• Sowing time: Sow with dependable monsoon onset, commonly from June to early July; delayed sowing generally reduces vegetative growth and yield.
• Seed and spacing:
  • Seed rate: Approximately 12-15 kg/ha for sole early or medium crops and 8-12 kg/ha for wider-spaced long-duration crops.
  • Spacing: About 60-75 cm between rows and 20-30 cm between plants; long-duration types may require 90 cm rows.
  • Depth: Place seed roughly 4-6 cm deep in moist soil.
• Seed treatment: Use an approved fungicidal or biocontrol treatment, followed by pigeon pea-specific Rhizobium inoculation.
• Nutrient management: A starter dose near 20-25 kg nitrogen and 40-60 kg phosphorus pentoxide per hectare is commonly used; potassium and sulfur are applied according to soil testing.
• Weed management: Keep the field weed-free for the first 45-60 days through one or two intercultivations and hand weedings; labelled herbicides may supplement these operations.
• Water management: Provide drainage during heavy rainfall; where irrigation is available, flowering and pod filling are critical stages.
• Plant protection: Monitor pod borer, pod fly, wilt and sterility mosaic; integrate resistant varieties, sanitation, biological control and need-based approved pesticides.

G. Yield

Yield varies widely with cultivar duration, rainfall, plant population and pest management.

• Rainfed yield: A well-managed sole crop commonly produces about 1.2-2.0 t/ha of grain.
• Improved conditions: Irrigated or highly managed crops and suitable hybrids may produce approximately 2.0-3.0 t/ha.
• Yield components: Plants per hectare, pods per plant, seeds per pod and individual seed weight jointly determine final grain yield.
• Harvesting: Harvest when about 75-80% of pods turn brown, dry the plants, thresh and reduce seed moisture to approximately 9-10% for safe storage.

III. Mung Bean — A Short-Duration Pulse

Mung bean or green gram, Vigna radiata (L.) R. Wilczek, is a rapidly maturing pulse suited to sole cropping, intercropping and short intervals between major crops.

A. Origin

Mung bean originated in the Indian subcontinent and was domesticated from its wild relative, Vigna radiata var. sublobata.

• Centre of diversity: India contains substantial variability in seed colour, maturity, plant habit and disease response.
• Spread: Cultivation extended from South Asia to Southeast Asia, China, Africa and other warm regions.
• Crop character: It is a predominantly self-pollinated annual belonging to the family Fabaceae.

B. Geographical Distribution

Mung bean is widely grown in the warm regions of Asia and has expanded as a short-duration crop elsewhere.

• Global cultivation: India, Myanmar, China, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Thailand and several African countries are important producers.
• Indian distribution: Rajasthan, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Odisha, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, Bihar and Uttar Pradesh are major growing states.
• Seasonal range: It is grown during kharif, as a spring or summer crop under irrigation, and after rice in suitable residual-moisture areas.

C. Economic Importance

Mung bean provides digestible protein and supports intensive cropping because many varieties mature within 60-75 days.

• Food use: Seeds contain about 22-25% protein and are consumed as dal, whole grain, sprouts and flour.
• Digestibility: Mung bean is generally easier to digest than several other grain legumes.
• Cropping value: Its short duration permits cultivation between wheat and rice or after an early harvested crop.
• Soil value: Root nodules fix nitrogen, while residues contribute organic matter and fodder.

D. Soil and Climatic Requirements

Mung bean requires warm weather, moderate moisture and excellent field drainage.

• Temperature: Approximately 25-35°C is favourable; low temperature delays growth.
• Rainfall: Around 600-750 mm is generally adequate for kharif cultivation.
• Soil: Well-drained sandy loam to loam soil is ideal.
• Soil reaction: A pH of about 6.0-7.5 is suitable.
• Sensitivity: Waterlogging, persistent rain during flowering and rain at maturity encourage flower drop, disease and seed deterioration.

E. Varieties

Early maturity and resistance to mung bean yellow mosaic virus are major varietal requirements.

• Common varieties: SML 668, SML 832, IPM 02-3, IPM 02-14, Pusa Vishal, Samrat and Pant Mung-5 are examples used in recommended zones.
• Selection basis: Choose notified cultivars according to season, regional disease pressure, maturity period and suitability for mechanical or repeated picking.
• Disease priority: Yellow mosaic resistance is especially important in whitefly-prone kharif environments.

F. Cultural Practices

Rapid and uniform establishment is essential because mung bean has a short vegetative period.

• Sowing: Sow at monsoon onset, generally in June-July, using about 12-20 kg seed/ha.
• Geometry: Maintain roughly 30-45 cm row spacing and 7-10 cm between plants; sow 3-5 cm deep.
• Seed treatment: Treat against seed- and soil-borne fungi, then inoculate with mung bean-specific Rhizobium.
• Fertilization: Apply about 15-20 kg nitrogen and 40-50 kg phosphorus pentoxide per hectare as a basal dose; use potassium and sulfur according to soil analysis.
• Weeds: One hand weeding or interculture at 20-25 days after sowing is critical; a second operation may be needed.
• Moisture management: Avoid standing water; under irrigation, flowering and pod filling are important stages.
• Protection: Manage whitefly, thrips, pod borers, yellow mosaic, Cercospora leaf spot and powdery mildew through resistant varieties and integrated measures.

G. Yield

Timely sowing and yellow mosaic management strongly influence mung bean productivity.

• Expected yield: Rainfed kharif crops commonly yield 0.7-1.2 t/ha; well-managed crops may reach 1.2-1.8 t/ha.
• Harvesting: Pick or harvest when most pods become dark brown or black; delayed harvesting can cause pod shattering.
• Storage: Dry cleaned seed to approximately 9-10% moisture before storage.

IV. Urd Bean — A Protein-Rich Warm-Season Pulse

Urd bean or black gram, Vigna mungo (L.) Hepper, is a short-duration annual valued for dal, fermented foods and its adaptability to rainfed cropping systems.

A. Origin

Urd bean originated and was domesticated in the Indian subcontinent.

• Wild ancestor: Domestication is associated with wild Vigna mungo forms native to South Asia.
• Crop identity: It is a self-pollinated member of Fabaceae with black or dark seed and hairy pods.
• Historical spread: Cultivation spread from India to other parts of tropical Asia and subsequently to warm regions elsewhere.

B. Geographical Distribution

Urd bean is concentrated in South and Southeast Asia, with India as its principal producer and consumer.

• Indian distribution: Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Telangana, Karnataka and Odisha are important producers.
• Cropping situations: It is grown as a kharif sole crop, intercrop, rice-fallow crop and irrigated summer crop.
• Adaptation: Short-duration cultivars fit cereal-based rotations and mixed dryland farming.

C. Economic Importance

Urd bean is important nutritionally, industrially and agronomically.

• Nutrition: Grain contains approximately 22-25% protein and appreciable calcium, iron and B-group vitamins.
• Food products: It is used for dal and fermented preparations such as idli, dosa and papad because its mucilaginous proteins provide desirable texture.
• Livestock use: Husks, broken seeds and crop residues serve as feed or fodder.
• Soil function: Nitrogen fixation and residue incorporation improve soil fertility for following crops.

D. Soil and Climatic Requirements

Urd bean grows best in warm weather on fertile, well-drained soils.

• Temperature: A range of about 25-35°C favours growth and pod formation.
• Rainfall: Approximately 600-800 mm of distributed rainfall is suitable.
• Soil: Loam to clay-loam soils are preferred, although the crop also grows on heavier black soils with adequate drainage.
• Soil reaction: About pH 6.5-7.8 is generally favourable.
• Adverse conditions: Waterlogging damages roots, while heavy rain during flowering reduces pollination and pod set.

E. Varieties

Suitable urd bean varieties combine early maturity, synchronous pod development and disease resistance.

• Common varieties: T-9, PU 31, Pant U-31, Uttara, LBG 752, LBG 787 and VBN 8 are examples recommended in different regions.
• Disease resistance: Resistance or tolerance to yellow mosaic virus, leaf crinkle and Cercospora leaf spot should guide selection.
• Regional suitability: Seed should come from a locally notified variety because maturity and disease reactions vary across production zones.

F. Cultural Practices

Urd bean management emphasizes timely sowing, drainage and weed control during early growth.

• Sowing: Sow with the monsoon during June-July at about 15-20 kg seed/ha.
• Spacing: Use approximately 30-45 cm between rows and 7-10 cm between plants, with a sowing depth of 3-5 cm.
• Seed preparation: Treat seed with an approved fungicide or biocontrol agent and subsequently inoculate it with urd bean-specific Rhizobium.
• Nutrients: A basal application near 15-20 kg nitrogen and 40-50 kg phosphorus pentoxide per hectare is common; soil tests should determine potassium and sulfur needs.
• Weed management: Maintain a weed-free crop for the first 30-40 days through interculture, hand weeding or recommended herbicides.
• Water management: Remove excess rainwater promptly; flowering and pod filling are the most responsive stages for protective irrigation.
• Protection: Monitor whitefly, aphids, pod borers, yellow mosaic, leaf crinkle and leaf spots; integrate clean seed, resistant cultivars, field sanitation and need-based controls.

G. Yield

Urd bean yield depends on effective plant establishment, disease control and timely harvesting.

• Expected yield: Rainfed kharif crops generally produce about 0.7-1.2 t/ha, while improved irrigated management may produce 1.2-1.8 t/ha.
• Maturity sign: Harvest when most pods turn black and leaves begin to shed.
• Loss prevention: Harvesting should not be excessively delayed because mature pods may shatter and weathered seed loses quality.
• Post-harvest handling: Dry, thresh, clean and store seed at approximately 9-10% moisture.