Unit 2: Crop Production Package of Practices for Kharif Millets - Subjective Questions

Origin:

• Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench) is believed to have originated in north-eastern Africa, particularly the Ethiopia–Sudan region.
• It was domesticated in Africa and subsequently introduced into India, the Middle East, Europe and the Americas.
• India is considered an important secondary centre of diversity because numerous cultivated forms have evolved under different agroclimatic conditions.

Geographical distribution:

• Sorghum is cultivated in tropical, subtropical and warm temperate regions of Africa, Asia, the Americas and Australia.
• Major sorghum-producing countries include the United States, Nigeria, Sudan, Ethiopia, India, Mexico and Argentina.
• In India, kharif sorghum is mainly grown in Maharashtra, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, Rajasthan, Gujarat and Tamil Nadu.
• It is particularly important in semi-arid regions because of its tolerance to drought, high temperature and intermittent moisture stress.

Sorghum is a multipurpose cereal with the following economic uses:

• Human food: The grain is used for roti, porridge, popped products, malted foods and traditional fermented preparations. It is a major source of carbohydrates and also supplies protein, minerals and dietary fibre.
• Livestock feed: Grain is used in poultry and animal-feed formulations as a source of energy.
• Fodder: Green plants, stover and silage provide valuable cattle feed, especially in dry regions.
• Industrial use: Sorghum grain is used for starch, alcohol, brewing, glucose syrup and bioethanol production.
• Sweet sorghum: Its juicy stalk contains fermentable sugars and can be used for syrup, jaggery and ethanol.
• Employment and income: Grain, fodder and value-added products provide income to farmers and rural processing industries.
• Climate resilience: Its drought tolerance and ability to grow on relatively marginal soils make it important for food and fodder security in rainfed agriculture.

Climatic requirements:

• Sorghum is a warm-season, short-day crop adapted to tropical and subtropical climates.
• A temperature of approximately – is favourable for germination, vegetative growth and grain formation.
• It is commonly cultivated where seasonal rainfall ranges from about 400 to 750 mm, provided the rainfall is well distributed.
• The crop tolerates drought because of its deep root system, waxy leaves and ability to reduce growth during stress.
• Prolonged waterlogging, cloudy weather at flowering and heavy rain at maturity are harmful.
• Dry and sunny weather during grain filling and harvesting improves grain quality.

Soil requirements:

• Deep, well-drained clay loam to loam soils are most suitable.
• Medium and deep black soils with good moisture-holding capacity support high productivity.
• A soil pH of about 6.0–8.5 is generally suitable.
• Strongly acidic, highly saline and continuously waterlogged soils should be avoided.
• The field should have good drainage because kharif sorghum is sensitive to prolonged standing water.

Important varietal groups:

• Improved varieties: Examples include M 35-1, CSV 15, CSV 17 and CSV 20. Their suitability differs with season and region.
• Hybrids: Examples include CSH 14, CSH 16 and CSH 25. Hybrids generally possess high yield potential under adequate management.
• Dual-purpose types: Selected for both grain yield and good-quality fodder or stover.
• Forage sorghums: Cultivated mainly for green fodder, hay or silage.
• Sweet sorghums: Possess juicy stalks rich in fermentable sugars.

Selection criteria:

• Suitability to the local rainfall pattern, soil and length of growing season.
• Appropriate duration so that flowering and maturity do not coincide with severe drought or heavy rain.
• Resistance or tolerance to shoot fly, stem borer, grain mould, downy mildew and other local constraints.
• High and stable grain yield with desirable grain quality.
• Good fodder yield and stover quality where sorghum has a dual-purpose role.
• Seed availability and recommendations of the state agricultural university or local extension agency.

Variety names and their performance are location-specific; therefore, locally notified cultivars should be preferred.

• Field preparation: One deep ploughing followed by two or three harrowings produces a fine, firm and weed-free seedbed. Farmyard manure may be incorporated during final land preparation.
• Drainage: Broad beds, ridges and furrows, or suitable drainage channels should be formed in heavy soils to prevent water stagnation.
• Seed treatment: Seed should be treated with a recommended fungicide or biological agent against seed- and soil-borne diseases. Insecticidal treatment may be used where shoot fly is a regular problem, according to local recommendations.
• Sowing time: Sowing should be completed immediately after the onset of dependable monsoon rains. Delayed sowing often increases shoot-fly damage and reduces yield.
• Seed rate: A seed rate of approximately – is commonly used for line-sown grain sorghum, depending on seed size, germination and sowing method.
• Spacing: A spacing of about between rows and – between plants is generally adopted.
• Depth: Seed is placed about – deep in moist soil.
• Thinning and gap filling: These operations are carried out within two weeks of emergence to maintain a uniform plant stand.

Nutrient management:

• Apply well-decomposed farmyard manure or compost during land preparation.
• Fertilizer doses should be based on soil-test results; rainfed sorghum commonly receives a moderate dose of nitrogen and phosphorus, while irrigated or high-yielding crops require more nutrients.
• Apply all phosphorus and potassium and about half of the nitrogen at sowing.
• Top-dress the remaining nitrogen around 25–35 days after sowing, preferably when adequate soil moisture is available.
• Zinc or other deficient micronutrients should be applied only on the basis of soil or plant diagnosis.

Weed management:

• The crop should remain weed-free during the first – days, which constitute the critical period of crop–weed competition.
• One or two intercultivations and hand weedings at approximately 15–20 and 30–35 days are effective.
• A locally recommended pre-emergence herbicide may be integrated with one later intercultivation.

Water management:

• Kharif sorghum is mainly rainfed, but drainage is essential during heavy rainfall.
• If protective irrigation is available, flowering and grain filling are critical stages.
• Inter-row cultivation, mulching and conservation furrows help store rainwater and reduce evaporation.

• Maturity indicators: The crop is ready for harvest when leaves and stalks begin to dry, grains become hard, panicles lose their green colour and a dark layer develops near the base of mature kernels.
• Harvesting: Ear heads may be cut first and stalks harvested later, or whole plants may be cut when grain and fodder are both required.
• Drying: Harvested panicles should be sun-dried thoroughly before threshing to reduce grain moisture and avoid mould development.
• Threshing: Grain is separated by beating, animal treading or mechanical threshers, followed by cleaning and grading.
• Storage: Clean grain should generally be dried to about moisture or lower for safe storage and protected from insects and moisture.
• Yield: Under rainfed conditions, improved management may produce approximately – of grain. Well-managed hybrids under favourable moisture may yield about – or more. Fodder yield varies widely with variety, rainfall and management.

Actual yield is strongly influenced by cultivar, plant population, soil fertility, rainfall distribution and pest incidence.

A complete production package includes the following operations:

1. Field and variety selection

   • Select a deep, well-drained soil with good moisture storage.
   • Choose a locally recommended, drought-tolerant and pest- or disease-resistant variety or hybrid of suitable duration.

2. Land preparation and moisture conservation

   • Prepare a firm, weed-free seedbed.
   • Incorporate compost or farmyard manure.
   • Adopt contour cultivation, compartmental bunding, conservation furrows or broad-bed-and-furrow planting as appropriate.

3. Seed and sowing

   • Use healthy certified seed and treat it against important seed-borne diseases and early pests.
   • Sow promptly with dependable monsoon rain.
   • Use about –, generally at a spacing near –.
   • Thin and fill gaps early to maintain a uniform stand.

4. Nutrient management

   • Follow soil-test-based recommendations.
   • Place phosphorus, potassium and part of nitrogen at sowing.
   • Top-dress the remaining nitrogen at about 25–35 days when soil moisture is adequate.

5. Weed management

   • Keep the crop weed-free for the first 30–40 days.
   • Combine intercultivation, hand weeding and a recommended herbicide where necessary.

6. Moisture and drainage management

   • Remove excess water quickly after heavy rain.
   • Use mulches and intercultivation to conserve soil moisture.
   • Give protective irrigation at flowering or grain filling if available.

7. Plant protection

   • Monitor shoot fly, stem borer, midge, grain mould and downy mildew.
   • Use timely sowing, resistant cultivars, field sanitation and need-based biological or chemical control.

8. Harvest and storage

   • Harvest at physiological maturity, dry panicles, thresh and store grain at safe moisture.

With suitable varieties and good rainwater management, rainfed grain yields of roughly – can be obtained, although local results vary.

Origin:

• Pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum, also known as Cenchrus americanus) originated in tropical western Africa, where it was domesticated before spreading to Asia.
• India became an important secondary centre of diversity and cultivation.

Distribution:

• It is widely grown in the arid and semi-arid regions of Africa and Asia.
• Important producing regions occur in India, Niger, Nigeria, Mali, Sudan and other dry tropical countries.
• In India, it is concentrated in Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Haryana, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh and Karnataka.

Economic importance:

• Grain is consumed as roti, porridge, fermented foods, malt and value-added products.
• It is rich in energy, fibre and minerals, particularly iron and zinc in suitable biofortified varieties.
• Grain is also used as poultry and livestock feed.
• Stover is an important dry fodder in arid areas.
• The crop matures rapidly and provides dependable production under drought, high temperature and poor soil fertility.
• It supports food, nutritional and fodder security in regions where many other cereals perform poorly.

Climatic requirements:

• Pearl millet is a warm-season crop adapted to hot, dry tropical environments.
• A temperature range of about – is favourable for its growth.
• It can produce grain under low and erratic rainfall, often in regions receiving about 250–600 mm of seasonal rainfall.
• Bright sunshine and dry weather at maturity are desirable.
• Low temperature, frost, prolonged cloudiness and waterlogging adversely affect the crop.

Soil requirements:

• It performs well on light-textured, well-drained sandy loam and loam soils.
• It can tolerate relatively low fertility and moderate salinity better than many cereals.
• Heavy, poorly drained and frequently flooded soils are unsuitable.
• A soil pH of roughly 6.0–8.5 is generally acceptable, although tolerance varies among cultivars.

Suitability to dryland farming:

• It has a deep and extensive root system.
• It grows rapidly and completes its life cycle in a comparatively short period.
• Its leaves and canopy possess water-saving characteristics.
• It tolerates high temperature and can recover from temporary moisture stress.
• It produces useful grain and fodder even on marginal sandy soils with limited rainfall.

Cultivar types:

• Open-pollinated varieties: These have a broader genetic base, often show stable performance and allow seed production under suitable isolation.
• Hybrids: These exploit heterosis and generally have higher yield potential under favourable management.
• Dual-purpose cultivars: Selected for both grain production and high-quality stover.
• Biofortified cultivars: Developed for higher concentrations of nutrients such as iron and zinc.

Illustrative Indian cultivars: HHB 67 Improved, HHB 197, RHB 177, ICTP 8203 Fe and regionally recommended hybrids or composites. Choice must follow local notification and testing.

Selection characteristics:

• Suitable maturity duration, especially earliness in drought-prone areas.
• High and stable grain and stover yield.
• Resistance to downy mildew, which is a major disease of pearl millet.
• Tolerance to drought, heat and lodging.
• Productive tillering, compact or desirable ear-head type and good grain size.
• Grain quality and nutritional traits preferred by consumers.
• Adaptation to local soil, rainfall and cropping system.

Certified seed of a locally recommended cultivar is essential, particularly for hybrids because saved hybrid seed does not retain the same level of performance.

• Land preparation: One ploughing followed by harrowing is generally sufficient to obtain a firm, weed-free seedbed. Excessive pulverization should be avoided in erosion-prone sandy soils.
• Organic manure: Well-decomposed farmyard manure or compost may be incorporated before sowing.
• Sowing time: Sow with the onset of effective monsoon rain. Timely sowing allows good establishment and reduces the probability of terminal drought.
• Seed treatment: Use certified seed treated with a recommended fungicide or biological agent. Metalaxyl-based treatment may be recommended in areas prone to downy mildew, subject to local guidance.
• Seed rate: About – is commonly used for line sowing, depending on seed quality and sowing equipment.
• Spacing: A common spacing is –; wider rows may be used in very dry areas.
• Sowing depth: Small seeds should generally be placed only – deep in moist soil.
• Plant stand: Gap filling and thinning are completed within two weeks after emergence. A uniform stand reduces competition among plants and makes efficient use of limited soil moisture.
• Contingency: If early drought causes poor emergence, prompt resowing or gap filling should be considered where sufficient growing season remains.

Nutrient management:

• Apply farmyard manure, compost or available crop residues to improve water retention and soil health.
• Determine fertilizer requirements through soil testing and expected rainfall.
• Apply all phosphorus and potassium and about half of the nitrogen at sowing.
• Top-dress the remaining nitrogen around 25–30 days after sowing, only when adequate soil moisture is present.
• Correct deficiencies of zinc, sulphur or other nutrients according to soil-test recommendations.

Weed management:

• The first – days are critical for crop–weed competition.
• Perform one hand weeding or intercultivation at about 15–20 days and another operation near 30–35 days if necessary.
• A recommended pre-emergence herbicide can be integrated with later intercultivation.
• Thinning and weeding may be combined to reduce labour requirements.

Moisture management:

• Adopt contour sowing, ridge-and-furrow planting, tied ridges or conservation furrows according to soil and slope.
• Intercultivation creates a soil mulch and reduces evaporative loss.
• Remove excess water rapidly because pearl millet is sensitive to waterlogging.
• Where irrigation is available, flowering and grain filling should receive priority during drought.

This integrated approach improves nutrient-use efficiency while reducing production risk under erratic rainfall.

Both are climate-resilient cereals, but pearl millet is generally preferred under hotter and drier conditions, while sorghum benefits more from deeper soils and relatively better moisture supply.

• Maturity: Ear heads become dry and brown, grains become hard and attain their characteristic colour, and lower leaves begin to dry.
• Harvesting method: Ear heads may be cut first and the remaining plants harvested later for fodder. Alternatively, whole plants can be cut and allowed to dry before threshing.
• Drying: Ear heads should be sun-dried properly to facilitate threshing and prevent fungal growth.
• Threshing: Grain is separated by beating, animal treading or mechanical threshing, followed by winnowing and cleaning.
• Storage: Grain should be dried to approximately moisture or less, stored in clean containers and protected from insects and moisture.
• Yield: Rainfed pearl millet commonly gives about – of grain under improved management. Favourable environments and well-managed hybrids may produce – or more.
• Stover: Stover is economically important and should be dried and stored under cover to preserve fodder quality.

Yield depends on rainfall distribution, cultivar, plant stand, soil fertility, weed control and downy mildew management.

Origin:

• Finger millet (Eleusine coracana) is believed to have been domesticated in the East African highlands, particularly the Ethiopia–Uganda region.
• It later spread to India, which became an important secondary centre of diversity.

Distribution:

• It is cultivated in eastern and southern Africa and in parts of South Asia.
• In India, major finger-millet-growing states include Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Uttarakhand, Maharashtra, Odisha, Andhra Pradesh and Jharkhand.
• It is grown in both plains and hill regions under rainfed as well as irrigated conditions.

Economic importance:

• Grain is used for roti, porridge, malt, infant foods, bakery products and traditional beverages.
• It is noted for its high calcium, dietary fibre and comparatively good storage quality.
• Malted finger millet is used in nutritious foods for children and adults.
• Grain can be stored for long periods with relatively low storage-pest damage when properly dried.
• Straw is used as cattle fodder.
• The crop performs well in diversified and low-input farming systems and contributes to nutritional security and climate resilience.

Climate:

• Finger millet grows in tropical and subtropical climates and is also adapted to moderate elevations.
• A temperature range of approximately – is favourable.
• It generally benefits from moderate, well-distributed rainfall but can withstand short periods of drought after establishment.
• Dry weather at maturity assists harvesting and reduces grain discolouration.

Soil:

• Well-drained red loams, sandy loams and lateritic soils are suitable.
• The crop can grow on relatively poor soils, but good fertility and moisture management improve yield.
• It tolerates mildly acidic soils better than several other cereals.
• Waterlogged, strongly saline and poorly drained fields are unsuitable.

Varietal requirements:

• Select a variety suited to local altitude, rainfall and crop duration.
• Important traits include high tillering, non-lodging habit, synchronized maturity, blast resistance and good grain quality.
• Illustrative Indian varieties include GPU 28, GPU 67, GPU 66, PR 202 and CO varieties, subject to regional recommendations.
• Early cultivars are useful in drought-prone areas, while medium-duration cultivars can exploit longer growing seasons.
• Certified seed of a locally notified, blast-resistant variety should be preferred.

1. Land preparation

• Prepare a fine, level and weed-free seedbed with adequate drainage.
• Incorporate well-decomposed farmyard manure or compost before sowing or transplanting.

2. Establishment methods

• Direct sowing: Seed may be line-sown at about –, depending on germination and equipment. Rows are commonly spaced around 22.5–30 cm apart.
• Transplanting: A nursery is raised with healthy seed. Seedlings approximately 20–30 days old are transplanted, commonly at about or a locally recommended spacing.
• Seed should be treated with a recommended fungicide or biological agent to reduce seedling diseases and blast risk.

3. Nutrient management

• Apply nutrients according to soil tests and production conditions.
• Use organic manure along with balanced nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium.
• Apply all phosphorus and potassium and part of nitrogen basally; top-dress the remaining nitrogen at tillering and, under adequate moisture, near panicle initiation.

4. Weed management

• Early growth is slow, so weeds must be controlled during approximately the first 30–40 days.
• Carry out thinning, hand weeding or intercultivation at suitable intervals.
• Recommended herbicides may supplement, but not replace, timely field operations.

5. Water and disease management

• Maintain adequate moisture during establishment, tillering and flowering.
• Avoid standing water and provide drainage.
• Manage blast through resistant cultivars, clean seed, balanced nitrogen and need-based plant protection.

6. Harvesting

• Harvest when ear heads turn brown and grains become hard.
• Cut ear heads or whole plants, dry thoroughly and thresh by beating or mechanical means.

7. Yield

• Rainfed crops may yield roughly – of grain.
• Well-managed transplanted or irrigated crops can produce about – or more, depending on variety and environment.

Important minor millets include the following:

• Foxtail millet (Setaria italica): An ancient millet associated mainly with China and Eurasia. It is cultivated in parts of India, China and other Asian countries. Its grain is used as food and bird feed, and it is suited to short growing seasons.
• Little millet (Panicum sumatrense): Considered to have been domesticated in the Indian subcontinent. It is grown in central and southern India and is valued as food and fodder under rainfed conditions.
• Kodo millet (Paspalum scrobiculatum): Cultivated widely in India, especially in central and tribal regions. The grain is used for traditional foods and the crop tolerates poor soils.
• Proso millet (Panicum miliaceum): Probably originated in Central or East Asia. It is a very short-duration millet cultivated in Asia, Europe and North America.
• Barnyard millet (Echinochloa frumentacea and related cultivated species): Grown in India and parts of East Asia. It is a rapid-growing crop used as food, fodder and a fasting food in India.
• Browntop millet (Urochloa ramosa): Cultivated on a limited scale for grain, fodder and ecological uses in dry regions.

Common economic and adaptive features:

• Most minor millets are nutritious, gluten-free grains rich in fibre and various minerals.
• They mature early, require comparatively little water and can grow on marginal or upland soils.
• They provide grain and fodder under low-input farming systems.
• Their diversity helps reduce climatic and production risks in rainfed agriculture.

General cultural practices:

1. Field and soil: Select a well-drained field. Most minor millets perform well on light to medium-textured upland soils, although exact adaptation differs among species.
2. Land preparation: Give one ploughing and two harrowings to prepare a fine, firm and weed-free seedbed.
3. Sowing: Sow at the beginning of the monsoon or during the locally recommended season. Line sowing is preferable because it permits intercultivation and uniform plant distribution.
4. Seed rate and spacing: Depending on species and seed size, line-sown crops commonly require approximately –. Row spacing generally ranges from 22.5 to 30 cm. Exact recommendations should be followed for each species.
5. Seed treatment: Treat seed against seed-borne diseases with a recommended fungicide or biological agent.
6. Nutrients: Apply compost or farmyard manure and a modest, soil-test-based dose of nitrogen and phosphorus. Excess nitrogen should be avoided where lodging is likely.
7. Weed control: Because seedlings are small and initially weak, one or two weedings during the first 30 days are important. Line sowing enables hoeing or intercultivation.
8. Moisture management: Conserve rainfall through contour cultivation, bunding and surface mulching. Provide drainage during intense rainfall.
9. Harvesting: Harvest when panicles and grains reach maturity, dry them thoroughly and thresh carefully to minimize the loss of small seeds.

Yield:

• Grain yields under rainfed low-input conditions are often around –.
• Improved varieties and good management may produce approximately –, depending on species, rainfall and soil fertility.
• Straw and fodder yield add substantially to the economic value of these crops.