1In the context of positive psychology and self-control, the famous "Marshmallow Test" conducted by Walter Mischel primarily measured which concept?
A.Delayed gratification
B.Intrinsic motivation
C.Ego depletion
D.Learned helplessness
Correct Answer: Delayed gratification
Explanation:
The Marshmallow Test assessed a child's ability to resist an immediate reward (one marshmallow) to receive a larger reward later (two marshmallows), which is the definition of delayed gratification.
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2According to the Strength Model of Self-Control proposed by Baumeister, self-control is best compared to:
A.A muscle
B.A logical algorithm
C.A bottomless well
D.A computer processor
Correct Answer: A muscle
Explanation:
Baumeister's model posits that self-control relies on a limited energy source (like glucose) and functions like a muscle that can become fatigued (depleted) with use but can also be strengthened over time.
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3Which of the following terms describes the state of diminished self-control resources following the exertion of self-control?
A.Cognitive dissonance
B.Self-actualization
C.Flow state
D.Ego depletion
Correct Answer: Ego depletion
Explanation:
Ego depletion refers to the state in which the self's resources are temporarily exhausted, leading to impaired self-regulation and a higher likelihood of self-control failure.
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4In the study of self-regulation, the TOTE model stands for:
A.Test-Operate-Test-Exit
B.Time-Organize-Time-Exit
C.Try-Observe-Think-Evaluate
D.Think-Organize-Test-Evaluate
Correct Answer: Test-Operate-Test-Exit
Explanation:
The TOTE model is a feedback loop used to describe self-regulation: Test (compare to standard), Operate (act to reduce discrepancy), Test (check again), and Exit (stop when standard is met).
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5Which of the following is considered a 'Cool' system characteristic in the Hot/Cool System analysis of self-control?
A.Stimulus-driven
B.Reflexive and emotional
C.Fast and automatic
D.Cognitive and reflective
Correct Answer: Cognitive and reflective
Explanation:
The Cool system is cognitive, reflective, slow, and strategic, aiding in self-control. The Hot system is emotional, impulsive, and stimulus-driven.
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6High trait self-control has been positively correlated with all of the following EXCEPT:
A.Better interpersonal relationships
B.Higher levels of impulsive spending
C.Higher academic achievement (GPA)
D.Lower rates of psychopathology
Correct Answer: Higher levels of impulsive spending
Explanation:
High self-control is associated with positive outcomes like better grades and relationships. It is negatively correlated with impulsive behaviors like overspending.
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7What is the primary difference between Self-Control and Self-Regulation?
A.Self-regulation is only about stopping behaviors, while self-control is about starting them.
B.There is no difference; they are exact synonyms.
C.Self-control is generally conscious and effortful, while self-regulation includes automatic processes.
D.Self-control refers to external constraints, while self-regulation is internal.
Correct Answer: Self-control is generally conscious and effortful, while self-regulation includes automatic processes.
Explanation:
While often used interchangeably, self-regulation is a broader term encompassing all processes (conscious and unconscious) used to guide goal-directed behavior, whereas self-control typically refers to the conscious, effortful inhibition of impulses.
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8Peter Gollwitzer introduced a strategy to improve goal attainment known as Implementation Intentions. This is best represented by the formula:
A."If situation arises, then I will perform response ."
B."I must avoid failure at all costs."
C."I want to achieve because it is important."
D."I will do my best."
Correct Answer: "If situation arises, then I will perform response ."
Explanation:
Implementation intentions are specific plans that link a situational cue to a goal-directed response using an "If-Then" structure (e.g., "If it is 5 PM, then I will go to the gym").
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9Which type of goal is generally associated with higher well-being and better persistence?
A.Approach goals
B.Extrinsic goals
C.Imposed goals
D.Avoidance goals
Correct Answer: Approach goals
Explanation:
Approach goals (moving toward a desirable outcome) are linked to higher well-being and success compared to avoidance goals (moving away from an undesirable outcome), which are often associated with anxiety.
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10According to Self-Determination Theory (SDT), goal pursuit leads to greater well-being when it satisfies which three basic psychological needs?
A.Pleasure, Engagement, and Meaning
B.Wealth, Fame, and Image
C.Autonomy, Competence, and Relatedness
D.Safety, Belonging, and Esteem
Correct Answer: Autonomy, Competence, and Relatedness
Explanation:
SDT posits that well-being is maximized when goals fulfill the innate needs for Autonomy (volition), Competence (mastery), and Relatedness (connection).
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11The "What-the-Hell Effect" (also known as the Abstinence Violation Effect) describes:
A.The aggressive reaction to blocked goals.
B.The boost in motivation after a small success.
C.Abandoning a goal completely after a minor slip-up.
D.The tendency to set goals that are too easy.
Correct Answer: Abandoning a goal completely after a minor slip-up.
Explanation:
This effect occurs when an individual perceives a minor lapse in self-control (e.g., eating one cookie while dieting) as a total failure, leading them to indulge completely (eating the whole box).
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12Which of the following is a common cause of under-regulation?
A.Having excessive willpower
B.Over-monitoring behavior
C.Setting standards that are vague or ambiguous
D.Obsessive-compulsive tendencies
Correct Answer: Setting standards that are vague or ambiguous
Explanation:
Under-regulation often stems from vague standards (e.g., "I want to be healthier" vs. "I will run 5k"), which makes monitoring progress and enforcing self-control difficult.
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13In the context of Misregulation, striving for a goal using a method that produces the opposite of the intended result is often called:
A.Ego depletion
B.Flow inhibition
C.Intrinsic regulation
D.Counterproductive strategies
Correct Answer: Counterproductive strategies
Explanation:
Misregulation involves trying to control oneself but doing so ineffectively. Using counterproductive strategies (e.g., trying to suppress a thought only to have it rebound) is a classic form of misregulation.
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14Goals that are consistent with an individual's core values and interests are known as:
A.Abstract goals
B.Introjected goals
C.Socially desirable goals
D.Self-concordant goals
Correct Answer: Self-concordant goals
Explanation:
Self-concordant goals are those that align with a person's developing interests and core values, leading to greater sustained effort and well-being.
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15According to Snyder's Hope Theory, high-hope individuals possess both:
A.Agency (willpower) and Pathways (waypower)
B.Extroversion and Conscientiousness
C.Optimism and Intelligence
D.Dreams and Desires
Correct Answer: Agency (willpower) and Pathways (waypower)
Explanation:
Hope Theory defines hope as the combination of Agency (the motivation or belief one can start and maintain effort) and Pathways (the ability to generate routes to reach goals).
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16The phenomenon where people grant themselves permission to indulge in bad behavior after doing something good is called:
A.Implementation intention
B.Goal shielding
C.Decision fatigue
D.Moral licensing
Correct Answer: Moral licensing
Explanation:
Moral licensing occurs when a person uses a prior good deed or "moral credit" to justify a subsequent lack of self-control or unethical behavior.
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17Which aspect of goal setting creates a standard against which performance can be compared?
A.Goal difficulty
B.Goal commitment
C.Goal complexity
D.Goal specificity
Correct Answer: Goal specificity
Explanation:
Goal specificity provides a clear standard. Vague goals like "do your best" lack a specific metric for the comparator function of self-regulation.
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18When an individual exerts self-control to suppress emotions during a movie, and subsequently squeezes a handgrip for a shorter duration than usual, this supports the theory of:
A.Emotional intelligence
B.Learned industriousness
C.Physiological adaptation
D.Self-control strength depletion
Correct Answer: Self-control strength depletion
Explanation:
This is a classic experimental setup for ego depletion (strength model), showing that using self-control in one domain (emotional regulation) drains resources available for a different domain (physical endurance).
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19Which of the following is NOT a component of the self-regulation feedback loop?
A.External attribution
B.Standards
C.Monitoring
D.Strength/Willpower
Correct Answer: External attribution
Explanation:
The three main ingredients of self-regulation are Standards (goals), Monitoring (self-awareness), and Strength/Willpower (capacity to change). External attribution is not a core component of the regulation loop itself.
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20In the context of personal goals, intrinsic motivation refers to doing something because:
A.You want a reward or prize.
B.You want to impress others.
C.You will be punished if you don't.
D.You find the activity itself inherently interesting or enjoyable.
Correct Answer: You find the activity itself inherently interesting or enjoyable.
Explanation:
Intrinsic motivation drives behaviors that are performed for their own sake, due to interest and enjoyment, rather than for separable outcomes.
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21The False Hope Syndrome is characterized by:
A.Successful long-term maintenance of difficult goals.
B.Unrealistic expectations about the speed, amount, and ease of self-change.
C.Setting low expectations to avoid disappointment.
D.A lack of desire to change behavior.
Correct Answer: Unrealistic expectations about the speed, amount, and ease of self-change.
Explanation:
False Hope Syndrome involves a cycle of repeated failure in self-change (e.g., dieting) because the goals set are unrealistic regarding the speed and ease of the transformation.
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22Which brain region is most heavily implicated in executive functions and self-control?
A.Occipital Lobe
B.Hippocampus
C.Amygdala
D.Prefrontal Cortex
Correct Answer: Prefrontal Cortex
Explanation:
The Prefrontal Cortex is the area of the brain responsible for executive functions, including planning, decision-making, and inhibiting impulsive behaviors (self-control).
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23According to Control Theory (Cybernetics), if a person detects a discrepancy between their current state and their goal state, they feel:
A.Negative affect/anxiety
B.Satisfied
C.Flow
D.Indifferent
Correct Answer: Negative affect/anxiety
Explanation:
In cybernetic models, a discrepancy between the current state and the standard (goal) typically generates negative affect or anxiety, which motivates the person to reduce the discrepancy.
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24What is the relationship between monitoring and self-control failure?
A.Monitoring is irrelevant to self-control.
B.Failure often occurs when people stop monitoring their behavior (e.g., not tracking spending).
C.Monitoring only matters for physical tasks.
D.Excessive monitoring always leads to failure.
Correct Answer: Failure often occurs when people stop monitoring their behavior (e.g., not tracking spending).
Explanation:
Effective self-regulation requires monitoring. When people stop paying attention to their behavior (e.g., they stop weighing themselves or tracking expenses), self-control failure is much more likely.
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25The concept of "Flow", often achieved when goals provide the right balance of challenge and skill, was proposed by:
A.Ed Diener
B.Albert Bandura
C.Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi
D.Martin Seligman
Correct Answer: Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi
Explanation:
Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi introduced the concept of Flow, a state of deep absorption in an activity where challenge level and skill level are balanced.
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26Why might avoidance goals (e.g., "I will not get angry") be detrimental to well-being compared to approach goals?
A.They provide a clear endpoint for success.
B.They require constant monitoring of negatives and offer fewer clearly defined paths to success.
C.They are too easy to achieve.
D.They increase ego strength.
Correct Answer: They require constant monitoring of negatives and offer fewer clearly defined paths to success.
Explanation:
Avoidance goals require a person to constantly monitor for the presence of the negative state, maintaining anxiety, and often lack a clear definition of what to do, only what not to do.
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27In the context of self-control failure, Decision Fatigue refers to:
A.The deteriorating quality of decisions made after a long session of decision making.
B.The physical tiredness felt after exercise.
C.The inability to make any decisions.
D.The preference for making difficult decisions over easy ones.
Correct Answer: The deteriorating quality of decisions made after a long session of decision making.
Explanation:
Decision fatigue is a specific form of depletion where the mental energy required to make choices wears down, leading to impulse buying or decision avoidance later in the day.
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28Which of the following best describes Introjected Regulation in the context of goal motivation?
A.Doing something because it aligns with personal values.
B.Doing something for pure enjoyment.
C.Doing something only for a paycheck.
D.Doing something to avoid guilt or anxiety, or to enhance ego.
Correct Answer: Doing something to avoid guilt or anxiety, or to enhance ego.
Explanation:
Introjected regulation is a form of extrinsic motivation where the pressure comes from within (internal pressure), such as acting to avoid guilt or shame, rather than true autonomous choice.
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29Research suggests that the best way to replenish depleted self-control resources (ego depletion) is to:
A.Force yourself to work harder.
B.Avoid setting any goals in the future.
C.Self-criticize to build toughness.
D.Engage in rest, positive affect induction, or glucose consumption.
Correct Answer: Engage in rest, positive affect induction, or glucose consumption.
Explanation:
Recovery from ego depletion is facilitated by rest, experiencing positive emotions, and physiologically by restoring glucose levels (though the glucose hypothesis is debated, rest and mood are widely accepted).
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30The "White Bear" experiment by Daniel Wegner demonstrated the ironic effects of:
A.Goal setting
B.Self-efficacy
C.Thought suppression
D.Implementation intentions
Correct Answer: Thought suppression
Explanation:
Wegner's study showed that telling people not to think of a white bear caused them to think about it more frequently, illustrating the failure of thought suppression as a control strategy.
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31Which of the following is an example of an intrinsic goal?
A.Financial success
B.Personal growth
C.Popularity
D.Physical attractiveness
Correct Answer: Personal growth
Explanation:
According to SDT, intrinsic goals include personal growth, relationships, and community contribution. Wealth, image, and fame are extrinsic goals.
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32In the context of personal goals and well-being, Goal Conflict (e.g., wanting to save money vs. wanting to travel) typically leads to:
A.Faster goal attainment
B.Psychological distress and immobilization
C.Enhanced self-regulation
D.Increased creativity
Correct Answer: Psychological distress and immobilization
Explanation:
Goal conflict creates ambivalence and stress, often leading to rumination, distress, and a lack of action (immobilization) on either goal.
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33The ability to alter one's own responses, including thoughts, emotions, and behaviors, to align with standards is the definition of:
A.Self-esteem
B.Self-regulation
C.Self-presentation
D.Self-concept
Correct Answer: Self-regulation
Explanation:
This is the standard definition of self-regulation: the capacity to alter responses to meet standards (ideals, social norms, or goals).
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34Procrastination is often conceptualized as a failure of self-regulation caused by:
A.Having too much time.
B.A lack of intelligence.
C.Over-planning.
D.Prioritizing short-term mood repair over long-term goals.
Correct Answer: Prioritizing short-term mood repair over long-term goals.
Explanation:
Procrastination is often an emotional regulation failure where the individual avoids the anxiety or boredom of a task to improve their immediate mood (short-term mood repair), despite long-term costs.
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35What role does Self-Efficacy (Bandura) play in self-regulation?
A.It is the accurate assessment of one's past failures.
B.It is the genetic component of willpower.
C.It is the belief in one's capacity to execute behaviors necessary to produce specific performance attainments.
D.It is the reliance on others to achieve goals.
Correct Answer: It is the belief in one's capacity to execute behaviors necessary to produce specific performance attainments.
Explanation:
Self-efficacy is the belief in one's ability to succeed. High self-efficacy improves self-regulation by encouraging persistence in the face of difficulties.
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36According to the Cybernetic Control Theory, what triggers the "Exit" phase in the TOTE unit?
A.When the test reveals that the current state matches the standard.
B.When the standard is removed.
C.Running out of energy.
D.When the operator gets bored.
Correct Answer: When the test reveals that the current state matches the standard.
Explanation:
In the TOTE loop, the system Exits (stops operating) only when the Test shows no discrepancy between the reality and the standard (the goal is met).
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37Which of the following strategies represents "reappraisal" in emotion regulation?
A.Avoiding the situation entirely.
B.Venting emotions to a friend.
C.Changing the way one thinks about a situation to alter its emotional impact.
D.Suppressing facial expressions.
Correct Answer: Changing the way one thinks about a situation to alter its emotional impact.
Explanation:
Cognitive reappraisal is an antecedent-focused strategy where one reinterprets the meaning of a stimulus (e.g., viewing a stressful interview as an opportunity) to change the emotional response.
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38Baumeister suggests that self-control failures often occur later in the day due to:
A.Lack of sunlight.
B.The cumulative effect of earlier acts of self-control (depletion).
C.Circadian rhythms decreasing intelligence.
D.Increased social pressure at night.
Correct Answer: The cumulative effect of earlier acts of self-control (depletion).
Explanation:
The strength model predicts that cumulative exertion of self-control throughout the day depletes the "muscle," making failures more likely in the evening (diurnal variation in self-control).
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39Abstract goals (e.g., "be a good person") generally differ from concrete goals (e.g., "call mom") in that abstract goals:
A.Are easier to monitor.
B.Provide meaning and purpose but are harder to monitor.
C.Are less important for well-being.
D.Have a clear finish line.
Correct Answer: Provide meaning and purpose but are harder to monitor.
Explanation:
High-level abstract goals explain the why (meaning/purpose) but lack specific criteria for monitoring progress, making them harder to regulate without concrete sub-goals.
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40When goals are imposed by others (controlled motivation), individuals are more likely to experience:
A.Greater persistence.
B.Defiance, low creativity, or doing the minimum required.
C.Deep conceptual learning.
D.High subjective well-being.
Correct Answer: Defiance, low creativity, or doing the minimum required.
Explanation:
Controlled motivation (imposed goals) often leads to poorer performance, less creativity, and doing only what is necessary, compared to autonomous motivation.
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41The "Zeigarnik Effect" relates to goal pursuit by stating that:
A.Completed tasks are remembered better than uncompleted ones.
B.Multitasking improves goal efficiency.
C.People forget their goals once they write them down.
D.Uncompleted or interrupted tasks are remembered better than completed ones.
Correct Answer: Uncompleted or interrupted tasks are remembered better than completed ones.
Explanation:
The Zeigarnik Effect suggests that unfulfilled goals remain active in memory (cognitive tension) until they are completed, which can aid self-regulation but also cause intrusive thoughts.
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42In the context of dieting, the failure of self-control is often exacerbated by:
A.Cognitive narrowing
B.The "Hot" emotional appeal of food overwhelming the "Cold" rational system.
C.High self-efficacy.
D.Over-monitoring caloric intake.
Correct Answer: The "Hot" emotional appeal of food overwhelming the "Cold" rational system.
Explanation:
Dietary failure is a classic example of the Hot system (immediate sensory appeal of food) overpowering the Cold system (long-term health goals).
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43Which of the following best characterizes "commitment" in Goal Setting Theory?
A.The feedback received on the goal.
B.The degree to which a person is attached to the goal and determined to reach it.
C.The difficulty of the goal.
D.The complexity of the task.
Correct Answer: The degree to which a person is attached to the goal and determined to reach it.
Explanation:
Goal commitment is the determination to achieve a goal. Without commitment, goal difficulty does not improve performance because the person will abandon the goal.
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44Failing to control an impulse because the brain prioritizes immediate reward over future consequences is often described economically as:
Temporal (or hyperbolic) discounting is the tendency to devalue rewards the further they are in the future, leading to a preference for smaller immediate rewards over larger delayed rewards.
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45A student sets a goal to study, but cleans their entire room instead. This is an example of:
A.Ego depletion
B.Flow
C.Implementation intention
D.Productive procrastination
Correct Answer: Productive procrastination
Explanation:
Productive procrastination involves doing beneficial things (like cleaning) to avoid doing the specific, more important task (studying) that one is regulating against.
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46Goal Shielding refers to:
A.Creating a backup plan in case of failure.
B.Hiding one's goals from others.
C.Protecting the focal goal by inhibiting thoughts about distracting alternative goals.
D.lowering standards to ensure success.
Correct Answer: Protecting the focal goal by inhibiting thoughts about distracting alternative goals.
Explanation:
Goal shielding is a cognitive mechanism where the activation of a focal goal automatically inhibits the accessibility of conflicting or distracting goals.
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47If a person has low Frustration Tolerance, they are more likely to:
A.Succeed in long-term goals.
B.Use effective coping strategies.
C.Maintain a "Cold" system focus.
D.Experience self-control failure when obstacles arise.
Correct Answer: Experience self-control failure when obstacles arise.
Explanation:
Low frustration tolerance makes it difficult to endure the discomfort required for self-regulation, leading to self-control failure when goals become challenging.
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48In the context of the Strength Model, which of the following is an example of conservation?
A.Withholding effort on a current task to save energy for a future, more important task.
B.Drinking glucose drinks.
C.Using all energy on the first task.
D.Sleeping before a task.
Correct Answer: Withholding effort on a current task to save energy for a future, more important task.
Explanation:
People intuitively understand their limits and may engage in conservation, holding back effort on less important current tasks to ensure they have enough "strength" for an anticipated future demand.
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49Which of the following is NOT a benefit typically associated with high self-control?
A.Higher creativity
B.Higher income potential
C.Less substance abuse
D.Better physical health
Correct Answer: Higher creativity
Explanation:
While high self-control predicts health, wealth, and academic success, the relationship with creativity is mixed or weak; excessive control can sometimes inhibit the divergent thinking required for creativity.
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50The concept of "Mental Contrasting" (Oettingen) involves:
A.Ignoring the future and living in the moment.
B.Thinking about the positive future outcome and contrasting it with the present reality/obstacles.
C.Only visualizing the positive outcome.
D.Focusing solely on the obstacles.
Correct Answer: Thinking about the positive future outcome and contrasting it with the present reality/obstacles.
Explanation:
Mental contrasting is a strategy where one visualizes the desired future and then immediately visualizes the present obstacles. This creates a strong link between the future and reality, enhancing goal commitment (if expectation of success is high).
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