1In the context of positive psychology and self-control, the famous "Marshmallow Test" conducted by Walter Mischel primarily measured which concept?
A.Intrinsic motivation
B.Ego depletion
C.Learned helplessness
D.Delayed gratification
Correct Answer: Delayed gratification
Explanation:
The Marshmallow Test assessed a child's ability to resist an immediate reward (one marshmallow) to receive a larger reward later (two marshmallows), which is the definition of delayed gratification.
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2According to the Strength Model of Self-Control proposed by Baumeister, self-control is best compared to:
A.A logical algorithm
B.A muscle
C.A computer processor
D.A bottomless well
Correct Answer: A muscle
Explanation:
Baumeister's model posits that self-control relies on a limited energy source (like glucose) and functions like a muscle that can become fatigued (depleted) with use but can also be strengthened over time.
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3Which of the following terms describes the state of diminished self-control resources following the exertion of self-control?
A.Ego depletion
B.Cognitive dissonance
C.Self-actualization
D.Flow state
Correct Answer: Ego depletion
Explanation:
Ego depletion refers to the state in which the self's resources are temporarily exhausted, leading to impaired self-regulation and a higher likelihood of self-control failure.
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4In the study of self-regulation, the TOTE model stands for:
A.Think-Organize-Test-Evaluate
B.Test-Operate-Test-Exit
C.Try-Observe-Think-Evaluate
D.Time-Organize-Time-Exit
Correct Answer: Test-Operate-Test-Exit
Explanation:
The TOTE model is a feedback loop used to describe self-regulation: Test (compare to standard), Operate (act to reduce discrepancy), Test (check again), and Exit (stop when standard is met).
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5Which of the following is considered a 'Cool' system characteristic in the Hot/Cool System analysis of self-control?
A.Fast and automatic
B.Reflexive and emotional
C.Cognitive and reflective
D.Stimulus-driven
Correct Answer: Cognitive and reflective
Explanation:
The Cool system is cognitive, reflective, slow, and strategic, aiding in self-control. The Hot system is emotional, impulsive, and stimulus-driven.
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6High trait self-control has been positively correlated with all of the following EXCEPT:
A.Better interpersonal relationships
B.Higher academic achievement (GPA)
C.Higher levels of impulsive spending
D.Lower rates of psychopathology
Correct Answer: Higher levels of impulsive spending
Explanation:
High self-control is associated with positive outcomes like better grades and relationships. It is negatively correlated with impulsive behaviors like overspending.
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7What is the primary difference between Self-Control and Self-Regulation?
A.Self-regulation is only about stopping behaviors, while self-control is about starting them.
B.Self-control is generally conscious and effortful, while self-regulation includes automatic processes.
C.Self-control refers to external constraints, while self-regulation is internal.
D.There is no difference; they are exact synonyms.
Correct Answer: Self-control is generally conscious and effortful, while self-regulation includes automatic processes.
Explanation:
While often used interchangeably, self-regulation is a broader term encompassing all processes (conscious and unconscious) used to guide goal-directed behavior, whereas self-control typically refers to the conscious, effortful inhibition of impulses.
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8Peter Gollwitzer introduced a strategy to improve goal attainment known as Implementation Intentions. This is best represented by the formula:
A."I will do my best."
B."I want to achieve because it is important."
C."I must avoid failure at all costs."
D."If situation arises, then I will perform response ."
Correct Answer: "If situation arises, then I will perform response ."
Explanation:
Implementation intentions are specific plans that link a situational cue to a goal-directed response using an "If-Then" structure (e.g., "If it is 5 PM, then I will go to the gym").
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9Which type of goal is generally associated with higher well-being and better persistence?
A.Approach goals
B.Avoidance goals
C.Imposed goals
D.Extrinsic goals
Correct Answer: Approach goals
Explanation:
Approach goals (moving toward a desirable outcome) are linked to higher well-being and success compared to avoidance goals (moving away from an undesirable outcome), which are often associated with anxiety.
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10According to Self-Determination Theory (SDT), goal pursuit leads to greater well-being when it satisfies which three basic psychological needs?
A.Autonomy, Competence, and Relatedness
B.Safety, Belonging, and Esteem
C.Wealth, Fame, and Image
D.Pleasure, Engagement, and Meaning
Correct Answer: Autonomy, Competence, and Relatedness
Explanation:
SDT posits that well-being is maximized when goals fulfill the innate needs for Autonomy (volition), Competence (mastery), and Relatedness (connection).
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11The "What-the-Hell Effect" (also known as the Abstinence Violation Effect) describes:
A.Abandoning a goal completely after a minor slip-up.
B.The aggressive reaction to blocked goals.
C.The tendency to set goals that are too easy.
D.The boost in motivation after a small success.
Correct Answer: Abandoning a goal completely after a minor slip-up.
Explanation:
This effect occurs when an individual perceives a minor lapse in self-control (e.g., eating one cookie while dieting) as a total failure, leading them to indulge completely (eating the whole box).
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12Which of the following is a common cause of under-regulation?
A.Over-monitoring behavior
B.Obsessive-compulsive tendencies
C.Having excessive willpower
D.Setting standards that are vague or ambiguous
Correct Answer: Setting standards that are vague or ambiguous
Explanation:
Under-regulation often stems from vague standards (e.g., "I want to be healthier" vs. "I will run 5k"), which makes monitoring progress and enforcing self-control difficult.
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13In the context of Misregulation, striving for a goal using a method that produces the opposite of the intended result is often called:
A.Counterproductive strategies
B.Intrinsic regulation
C.Flow inhibition
D.Ego depletion
Correct Answer: Counterproductive strategies
Explanation:
Misregulation involves trying to control oneself but doing so ineffectively. Using counterproductive strategies (e.g., trying to suppress a thought only to have it rebound) is a classic form of misregulation.
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14Goals that are consistent with an individual's core values and interests are known as:
A.Socially desirable goals
B.Self-concordant goals
C.Introjected goals
D.Abstract goals
Correct Answer: Self-concordant goals
Explanation:
Self-concordant goals are those that align with a person's developing interests and core values, leading to greater sustained effort and well-being.
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15According to Snyder's Hope Theory, high-hope individuals possess both:
A.Optimism and Intelligence
B.Dreams and Desires
C.Extroversion and Conscientiousness
D.Agency (willpower) and Pathways (waypower)
Correct Answer: Agency (willpower) and Pathways (waypower)
Explanation:
Hope Theory defines hope as the combination of Agency (the motivation or belief one can start and maintain effort) and Pathways (the ability to generate routes to reach goals).
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16The phenomenon where people grant themselves permission to indulge in bad behavior after doing something good is called:
A.Implementation intention
B.Goal shielding
C.Moral licensing
D.Decision fatigue
Correct Answer: Moral licensing
Explanation:
Moral licensing occurs when a person uses a prior good deed or "moral credit" to justify a subsequent lack of self-control or unethical behavior.
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17Which aspect of goal setting creates a standard against which performance can be compared?
A.Goal complexity
B.Goal difficulty
C.Goal commitment
D.Goal specificity
Correct Answer: Goal specificity
Explanation:
Goal specificity provides a clear standard. Vague goals like "do your best" lack a specific metric for the comparator function of self-regulation.
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18When an individual exerts self-control to suppress emotions during a movie, and subsequently squeezes a handgrip for a shorter duration than usual, this supports the theory of:
A.Self-control strength depletion
B.Learned industriousness
C.Emotional intelligence
D.Physiological adaptation
Correct Answer: Self-control strength depletion
Explanation:
This is a classic experimental setup for ego depletion (strength model), showing that using self-control in one domain (emotional regulation) drains resources available for a different domain (physical endurance).
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19Which of the following is NOT a component of the self-regulation feedback loop?
A.External attribution
B.Standards
C.Strength/Willpower
D.Monitoring
Correct Answer: External attribution
Explanation:
The three main ingredients of self-regulation are Standards (goals), Monitoring (self-awareness), and Strength/Willpower (capacity to change). External attribution is not a core component of the regulation loop itself.
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20In the context of personal goals, intrinsic motivation refers to doing something because:
A.You will be punished if you don't.
B.You find the activity itself inherently interesting or enjoyable.
C.You want to impress others.
D.You want a reward or prize.
Correct Answer: You find the activity itself inherently interesting or enjoyable.
Explanation:
Intrinsic motivation drives behaviors that are performed for their own sake, due to interest and enjoyment, rather than for separable outcomes.
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21The False Hope Syndrome is characterized by:
A.Successful long-term maintenance of difficult goals.
B.Unrealistic expectations about the speed, amount, and ease of self-change.
C.A lack of desire to change behavior.
D.Setting low expectations to avoid disappointment.
Correct Answer: Unrealistic expectations about the speed, amount, and ease of self-change.
Explanation:
False Hope Syndrome involves a cycle of repeated failure in self-change (e.g., dieting) because the goals set are unrealistic regarding the speed and ease of the transformation.
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22Which brain region is most heavily implicated in executive functions and self-control?
A.Amygdala
B.Hippocampus
C.Prefrontal Cortex
D.Occipital Lobe
Correct Answer: Prefrontal Cortex
Explanation:
The Prefrontal Cortex is the area of the brain responsible for executive functions, including planning, decision-making, and inhibiting impulsive behaviors (self-control).
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23According to Control Theory (Cybernetics), if a person detects a discrepancy between their current state and their goal state, they feel:
A.Flow
B.Negative affect/anxiety
C.Satisfied
D.Indifferent
Correct Answer: Negative affect/anxiety
Explanation:
In cybernetic models, a discrepancy between the current state and the standard (goal) typically generates negative affect or anxiety, which motivates the person to reduce the discrepancy.
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24What is the relationship between monitoring and self-control failure?
A.Excessive monitoring always leads to failure.
B.Failure often occurs when people stop monitoring their behavior (e.g., not tracking spending).
C.Monitoring is irrelevant to self-control.
D.Monitoring only matters for physical tasks.
Correct Answer: Failure often occurs when people stop monitoring their behavior (e.g., not tracking spending).
Explanation:
Effective self-regulation requires monitoring. When people stop paying attention to their behavior (e.g., they stop weighing themselves or tracking expenses), self-control failure is much more likely.
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25The concept of "Flow", often achieved when goals provide the right balance of challenge and skill, was proposed by:
A.Albert Bandura
B.Martin Seligman
C.Ed Diener
D.Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi
Correct Answer: Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi
Explanation:
Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi introduced the concept of Flow, a state of deep absorption in an activity where challenge level and skill level are balanced.
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26Why might avoidance goals (e.g., "I will not get angry") be detrimental to well-being compared to approach goals?
A.They are too easy to achieve.
B.They increase ego strength.
C.They require constant monitoring of negatives and offer fewer clearly defined paths to success.
D.They provide a clear endpoint for success.
Correct Answer: They require constant monitoring of negatives and offer fewer clearly defined paths to success.
Explanation:
Avoidance goals require a person to constantly monitor for the presence of the negative state, maintaining anxiety, and often lack a clear definition of what to do, only what not to do.
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27In the context of self-control failure, Decision Fatigue refers to:
A.The physical tiredness felt after exercise.
B.The preference for making difficult decisions over easy ones.
C.The inability to make any decisions.
D.The deteriorating quality of decisions made after a long session of decision making.
Correct Answer: The deteriorating quality of decisions made after a long session of decision making.
Explanation:
Decision fatigue is a specific form of depletion where the mental energy required to make choices wears down, leading to impulse buying or decision avoidance later in the day.
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28Which of the following best describes Introjected Regulation in the context of goal motivation?
A.Doing something only for a paycheck.
B.Doing something to avoid guilt or anxiety, or to enhance ego.
C.Doing something for pure enjoyment.
D.Doing something because it aligns with personal values.
Correct Answer: Doing something to avoid guilt or anxiety, or to enhance ego.
Explanation:
Introjected regulation is a form of extrinsic motivation where the pressure comes from within (internal pressure), such as acting to avoid guilt or shame, rather than true autonomous choice.
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29Research suggests that the best way to replenish depleted self-control resources (ego depletion) is to:
A.Engage in rest, positive affect induction, or glucose consumption.
B.Self-criticize to build toughness.
C.Avoid setting any goals in the future.
D.Force yourself to work harder.
Correct Answer: Engage in rest, positive affect induction, or glucose consumption.
Explanation:
Recovery from ego depletion is facilitated by rest, experiencing positive emotions, and physiologically by restoring glucose levels (though the glucose hypothesis is debated, rest and mood are widely accepted).
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30The "White Bear" experiment by Daniel Wegner demonstrated the ironic effects of:
A.Implementation intentions
B.Self-efficacy
C.Goal setting
D.Thought suppression
Correct Answer: Thought suppression
Explanation:
Wegner's study showed that telling people not to think of a white bear caused them to think about it more frequently, illustrating the failure of thought suppression as a control strategy.
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31Which of the following is an example of an intrinsic goal?
A.Popularity
B.Financial success
C.Physical attractiveness
D.Personal growth
Correct Answer: Personal growth
Explanation:
According to SDT, intrinsic goals include personal growth, relationships, and community contribution. Wealth, image, and fame are extrinsic goals.
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32In the context of personal goals and well-being, Goal Conflict (e.g., wanting to save money vs. wanting to travel) typically leads to:
A.Psychological distress and immobilization
B.Enhanced self-regulation
C.Faster goal attainment
D.Increased creativity
Correct Answer: Psychological distress and immobilization
Explanation:
Goal conflict creates ambivalence and stress, often leading to rumination, distress, and a lack of action (immobilization) on either goal.
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33The ability to alter one's own responses, including thoughts, emotions, and behaviors, to align with standards is the definition of:
A.Self-presentation
B.Self-regulation
C.Self-concept
D.Self-esteem
Correct Answer: Self-regulation
Explanation:
This is the standard definition of self-regulation: the capacity to alter responses to meet standards (ideals, social norms, or goals).
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34Procrastination is often conceptualized as a failure of self-regulation caused by:
A.A lack of intelligence.
B.Over-planning.
C.Prioritizing short-term mood repair over long-term goals.
D.Having too much time.
Correct Answer: Prioritizing short-term mood repair over long-term goals.
Explanation:
Procrastination is often an emotional regulation failure where the individual avoids the anxiety or boredom of a task to improve their immediate mood (short-term mood repair), despite long-term costs.
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35What role does Self-Efficacy (Bandura) play in self-regulation?
A.It is the belief in one's capacity to execute behaviors necessary to produce specific performance attainments.
B.It is the genetic component of willpower.
C.It is the accurate assessment of one's past failures.
D.It is the reliance on others to achieve goals.
Correct Answer: It is the belief in one's capacity to execute behaviors necessary to produce specific performance attainments.
Explanation:
Self-efficacy is the belief in one's ability to succeed. High self-efficacy improves self-regulation by encouraging persistence in the face of difficulties.
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36According to the Cybernetic Control Theory, what triggers the "Exit" phase in the TOTE unit?
A.When the standard is removed.
B.When the test reveals that the current state matches the standard.
C.Running out of energy.
D.When the operator gets bored.
Correct Answer: When the test reveals that the current state matches the standard.
Explanation:
In the TOTE loop, the system Exits (stops operating) only when the Test shows no discrepancy between the reality and the standard (the goal is met).
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37Which of the following strategies represents "reappraisal" in emotion regulation?
A.Venting emotions to a friend.
B.Changing the way one thinks about a situation to alter its emotional impact.
C.Avoiding the situation entirely.
D.Suppressing facial expressions.
Correct Answer: Changing the way one thinks about a situation to alter its emotional impact.
Explanation:
Cognitive reappraisal is an antecedent-focused strategy where one reinterprets the meaning of a stimulus (e.g., viewing a stressful interview as an opportunity) to change the emotional response.
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38Baumeister suggests that self-control failures often occur later in the day due to:
A.Circadian rhythms decreasing intelligence.
B.Lack of sunlight.
C.The cumulative effect of earlier acts of self-control (depletion).
D.Increased social pressure at night.
Correct Answer: The cumulative effect of earlier acts of self-control (depletion).
Explanation:
The strength model predicts that cumulative exertion of self-control throughout the day depletes the "muscle," making failures more likely in the evening (diurnal variation in self-control).
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39Abstract goals (e.g., "be a good person") generally differ from concrete goals (e.g., "call mom") in that abstract goals:
A.Provide meaning and purpose but are harder to monitor.
B.Have a clear finish line.
C.Are less important for well-being.
D.Are easier to monitor.
Correct Answer: Provide meaning and purpose but are harder to monitor.
Explanation:
High-level abstract goals explain the why (meaning/purpose) but lack specific criteria for monitoring progress, making them harder to regulate without concrete sub-goals.
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40When goals are imposed by others (controlled motivation), individuals are more likely to experience:
A.Greater persistence.
B.High subjective well-being.
C.Deep conceptual learning.
D.Defiance, low creativity, or doing the minimum required.
Correct Answer: Defiance, low creativity, or doing the minimum required.
Explanation:
Controlled motivation (imposed goals) often leads to poorer performance, less creativity, and doing only what is necessary, compared to autonomous motivation.
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41The "Zeigarnik Effect" relates to goal pursuit by stating that:
A.Uncompleted or interrupted tasks are remembered better than completed ones.
B.People forget their goals once they write them down.
C.Multitasking improves goal efficiency.
D.Completed tasks are remembered better than uncompleted ones.
Correct Answer: Uncompleted or interrupted tasks are remembered better than completed ones.
Explanation:
The Zeigarnik Effect suggests that unfulfilled goals remain active in memory (cognitive tension) until they are completed, which can aid self-regulation but also cause intrusive thoughts.
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42In the context of dieting, the failure of self-control is often exacerbated by:
A.Cognitive narrowing
B.High self-efficacy.
C.Over-monitoring caloric intake.
D.The "Hot" emotional appeal of food overwhelming the "Cold" rational system.
Correct Answer: The "Hot" emotional appeal of food overwhelming the "Cold" rational system.
Explanation:
Dietary failure is a classic example of the Hot system (immediate sensory appeal of food) overpowering the Cold system (long-term health goals).
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43Which of the following best characterizes "commitment" in Goal Setting Theory?
A.The feedback received on the goal.
B.The degree to which a person is attached to the goal and determined to reach it.
C.The difficulty of the goal.
D.The complexity of the task.
Correct Answer: The degree to which a person is attached to the goal and determined to reach it.
Explanation:
Goal commitment is the determination to achieve a goal. Without commitment, goal difficulty does not improve performance because the person will abandon the goal.
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44Failing to control an impulse because the brain prioritizes immediate reward over future consequences is often described economically as:
Temporal (or hyperbolic) discounting is the tendency to devalue rewards the further they are in the future, leading to a preference for smaller immediate rewards over larger delayed rewards.
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45A student sets a goal to study, but cleans their entire room instead. This is an example of:
A.Implementation intention
B.Productive procrastination
C.Flow
D.Ego depletion
Correct Answer: Productive procrastination
Explanation:
Productive procrastination involves doing beneficial things (like cleaning) to avoid doing the specific, more important task (studying) that one is regulating against.
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46Goal Shielding refers to:
A.Protecting the focal goal by inhibiting thoughts about distracting alternative goals.
B.Hiding one's goals from others.
C.Creating a backup plan in case of failure.
D.lowering standards to ensure success.
Correct Answer: Protecting the focal goal by inhibiting thoughts about distracting alternative goals.
Explanation:
Goal shielding is a cognitive mechanism where the activation of a focal goal automatically inhibits the accessibility of conflicting or distracting goals.
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47If a person has low Frustration Tolerance, they are more likely to:
A.Maintain a "Cold" system focus.
B.Succeed in long-term goals.
C.Use effective coping strategies.
D.Experience self-control failure when obstacles arise.
Correct Answer: Experience self-control failure when obstacles arise.
Explanation:
Low frustration tolerance makes it difficult to endure the discomfort required for self-regulation, leading to self-control failure when goals become challenging.
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48In the context of the Strength Model, which of the following is an example of conservation?
A.Withholding effort on a current task to save energy for a future, more important task.
B.Using all energy on the first task.
C.Sleeping before a task.
D.Drinking glucose drinks.
Correct Answer: Withholding effort on a current task to save energy for a future, more important task.
Explanation:
People intuitively understand their limits and may engage in conservation, holding back effort on less important current tasks to ensure they have enough "strength" for an anticipated future demand.
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49Which of the following is NOT a benefit typically associated with high self-control?
A.Higher creativity
B.Less substance abuse
C.Better physical health
D.Higher income potential
Correct Answer: Higher creativity
Explanation:
While high self-control predicts health, wealth, and academic success, the relationship with creativity is mixed or weak; excessive control can sometimes inhibit the divergent thinking required for creativity.
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50The concept of "Mental Contrasting" (Oettingen) involves:
A.Thinking about the positive future outcome and contrasting it with the present reality/obstacles.
B.Ignoring the future and living in the moment.
C.Focusing solely on the obstacles.
D.Only visualizing the positive outcome.
Correct Answer: Thinking about the positive future outcome and contrasting it with the present reality/obstacles.
Explanation:
Mental contrasting is a strategy where one visualizes the desired future and then immediately visualizes the present obstacles. This creates a strong link between the future and reality, enhancing goal commitment (if expectation of success is high).
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