Unit 5: Post Mauryan Period

Focus Area: The Gupta Empire (c. 319 CE – 540 CE)

The Gupta period is historically regarded as the "Classical Age" or "Golden Age" of Ancient India. While the Post-Mauryan period saw various powers like the Kushanas and Satavahanas, the rise of the Guptas marked the return of a large, unified political entity in Northern India, characterized by unparalleled achievements in art, science, and literature.

1. The Gupta Rulers

The genealogy of the Gupta dynasty is generally traced through inscriptions such as the Allahabad Pillar Inscription and various coin hoards.

A. Early Rulers

• Sri Gupta (c. 240–280 CE): The founder of the dynasty. He used the simple title of Maharaja, suggesting he was likely a feudatory.
• Ghatotkacha (c. 280–319 CE): Son of Sri Gupta, also held the title Maharaja.

B. Chandragupta I (c. 319–335 CE)

• Considered the real founder of the Gupta Empire.
• Title: Adopted the grandiose title Maharajadhiraja (King of Kings).
• Gupta Era: Started the Gupta Era in 319–320 CE to mark his accession.
• Matrimonial Alliance: Married Kumaradevi, a princess of the powerful Lichchhavi clan (modern-day Nepal/Bihar). This alliance significantly boosted the political prestige of the Guptas.
• Coinage: Issued gold coins depicting himself and Queen Kumaradevi with the legend "Lichchhavayah."

C. Samudragupta (c. 335–375 CE)

• Source: The Allahabad Pillar Inscription (Prayag Prashasti), composed by his court poet Harisena, details his military conquests.
• Military Policy:
  1. Aryavarta (North India): Followed a policy of Prasabhoddharana (violent extermination), annexing 9 kingdoms.
  2. Dakshinapatha (South India): Defeated 12 rulers but reinstated them (Grahana-moksha-anugraha — capture, release, and favor) in exchange for tribute.
  3. Border States/Forest Tribes: They accepted his suzerainty.
• Titles: Called the "Napoleon of India" by historian V.A. Smith. Also known as Kaviraja (King of Poets).
• Culture: He was a patron of learning and music; coins depict him playing the Veena. He permitted the Ceylonese king Meghavarman to build a monastery at Bodh Gaya.

D. Chandragupta II (Vikramaditya) (c. 376–415 CE)

• Zenith of Power: The empire reached its peak territory and cultural influence.
• Conquest over Shakas: His greatest military achievement was the defeat of the Shaka Satraps of Western India (ending 400 years of Shaka rule). He took the title Sakari (Destroyer of Shakas) and Vikramaditya.
• Matrimonial Alliances:
  • Married his daughter, Prabhavatigupta, to Rudrasena II of the Vakataka dynasty. This secured a friendly southern flank, crucial for his campaign against the Shakas.
• The Navratnas (Nine Gems): His court was adorned by nine scholars, including Kalidasa (poet), Amarasimha (lexicographer), and Varahamihira (astronomer).
• Chinese Traveler: Fa-Hien visited India during his reign (399–414 CE) and described the prosperity of the people and the mildness of the administration.

E. Kumaragupta I (c. 415–455 CE)

• Peace and Prosperity: Maintained the vast empire inherited from his father.
• Nalanda University: Credited with laying the foundation of Nalanda Mahavihara, which became a global center of learning.
• Religious leanings: Worshiped Lord Kartikeya.
• Inscriptions: Left the maximum number of inscriptions among Gupta rulers.

F. Skandagupta (c. 455–467 CE)

• The Savior: Faced the first wave of Huna invasions from the northwest and successfully repelled them.
• Public Works: Repaired the famous Sudarshana Lake in Girnar (Gujarat).
• Decline: He was the last great Gupta ruler; successors were weak.

2. Gupta Administration

Unlike the highly centralized Mauryan administration, the Gupta system was decentralized and quasi-feudal.

A. Central Administration

• King: The supreme authority. Adopted titles claiming divinity like Parameshvara and Paramabhattaraka.
• Council of Ministers (Mantriparishad): Assisted the king. The post of ministers often became hereditary.
• Key Officials:
  • Mahadandanayaka: Chief Justice / Commander-in-Chief.
  • Mahasandhivigrahika: Minister of War and Peace (Foreign Minister).
  • Kumaramatya: A high-ranking cadre of officials (similar to modern IAS) functioning at provincial and district levels.

B. Provincial and Local Administration

The empire was divided administratively as follows:

• District Council (Adhisthana Adhikarana): The Vishayapati was assisted by a council representing major local interests (Corporate nature of administration):
  • Nagarasresthi: Chief Banker/Merchant.
  • Sarthavaha: Chief Leader of Traders/Caravans.
  • Prathamakulika: Chief Artisan.
  • Prathamakayastha: Chief Scribe.

C. Revenue and Army

• Land Revenue: Known as Bhaga, typically 1/6th of the produce.
• Taxes: Bali (compulsory offering), Udranga (police tax), Hiranya (gold/cash tax).
• Army: Maintained a standing army but relied heavily on feudal chiefs (Samantas) to supply troops during war. Horse archery became prominent.

D. Judicial System

• Civil and criminal laws were clearly demarcated for the first time.
• Inheritance laws were detailed (e.g., Mitakshara and Dayabhaga schools evolved later based on these foundations).

3. Literature

The Gupta period saw the revival of Sanskrit as the official court language.

A. Religious Literature

• Puranas: The existing Puranas (Vayu, Vishnu, Matsya, etc.) were compiled and edited in their present form during this period.
• Epics: The Ramayana and Mahabharata were given their final touches.
• Smritis: Narada Smriti, Parashara Smriti, and Brihaspati Smriti were written.

B. Secular Literature (Poetry and Drama)

• Kalidasa (The Shakespeare of India):
  • Dramas: Abhijnana Shakuntalam (masterpiece), Malavikagnimitram, Vikramorvasiyam.
  • Epics (Mahakavyas): Raghuvamsha, Kumarasambhava.
  • Lyrics: Meghaduta, Ritusamhara.
• Vishakhadatta: wrote Mudrarakshasa (political drama regarding Mauryas) and Devichandraguptam.
• Sudraka: wrote Mrichchhakatika (The Little Clay Cart), a play about a Brahmin merchant and a courtesan, noted for its realistic depiction of society.
• Vishnu Sharma: Compiled the Panchatantra (fables for moral and political education).
• Amarasimha: Wrote Amarakosha (Sanskrit vocabulary/lexicon).

C. Scientific Literature

• Aryabhata: Wrote Aryabhatiya and Surya Siddhanta.
  • Formulated the theory that the earth rotates on its axis and revolves around the sun.
  • gave the value of Pi () and the concept of Zero.
• Varahamihira: Wrote Brihat Samhita (encyclopedia on astronomy, botany, geography) and Pancha Siddhantika.
• Dhanvantari: Famous physician (Ayurveda).
• Vagbhata: Wrote Ashtangahridaya (Summary of the 8 branches of medicine).

4. Art and Crafts

A. Architecture (Temple Building)

The Gupta period marks the beginning of the Indian temple architecture (evolution from cave shrines to structural temples).

• Style: Early beginnings of the Nagara style (shikharas were low and flat initially, then curvilinear).
• Key Features: Garbhagriha (sanctum), Mandapa (hall), and Ganga-Yamuna river goddess carvings at entrances.
• Famous Examples:
  • Dashavatara Temple, Deogarh (Jhansi): First temple with a Shikara (tower).
  • Bhitargaon Temple (Kanpur): Built entirely of brick.
  • Bhitari Temple (Ghazipur).

B. Sculpture

A shift occurred from the sensuous Gandhara style to a more spiritual, serene Indian style.

• Sarnath School: Specialized in Buddha images. Notable for the "cream-colored sandstone" and the plain, transparent drapery.
  • Masterpiece: Seated Buddha in Dharma-Chakra-Pravartana mudra.
• Mathura School: Continued to flourish; utilized spotted red sandstone.
• Theme: Focus on spiritual expression rather than anatomical realism. Haloes around heads became elaborately decorated.

C. Painting

• Ajanta Caves (Maharashtra): Most paintings (Frescoes) belong to the Gupta period (specifically Caves 16, 17, and 19).
  • Technique: Tempera style.
  • Themes: Jataka tales (life of Buddha). Renowned for the painting of Bodhisattva Padmapani.
• Bagh Caves (Madhya Pradesh): Depict secular life unlike the religious focus of Ajanta.

D. Coinage (Numismatics)

• Issued the largest number of Gold Coins (called Dinaras) in ancient India.
• Coins were artistically superior to previous dynasties, depicting the king in various poses (Archer type, Lion-slayer type, Lyrist type).
• Silver coins (Rupaka) were issued after the defeat of Western Satraps.

E. Metal Technology

• Iron Pillar of Delhi (Mehrauli): Standing near Qutub Minar, it has not rusted for over 1600 years, showcasing advanced metallurgical skills.

5. Decline of the Gupta Empire

The decline began in the late 5th century and the empire collapsed by the mid-6th century.

A. Huna Invasions

• The Hunas (a Central Asian tribe) attacked repeatedly.
• While Skandagupta repelled them, later invasions under Toramana and Mihirakula penetrated deep into Central India.
• These wars drained the treasury and weakened central authority.

B. Rise of Feudatories

• The administrative structure (Samanta system) allowed local governors to become powerful.
• As the central power weakened, feudatories declared independence.
  • Maitrakas rose in Valabhi (Gujarat).
  • Maukharis rose in Kanauj.
  • Yashodharman of Malwa challenged Gupta authority.

C. Weak Successors

• After Skandagupta, rulers like Purugupta, Buddhagupta, and Narasimhagupta Baladitya lacked the military prowess to hold the vast empire together.

D. Economic Decline

• Loss of Trade: Trade with the Roman Empire declined (partly due to Huna disruption of silk routes).
• Land Grants: Increasing practice of giving tax-free land grants to Brahmins and officials reduced the state's revenue base.
• Debasement of Currency: Later Gupta gold coins show a lower percentage of gold content, indicating a financial crunch.

E. Conclusion

The collapse of the Guptas ended the political unity of North India, leading to a period of fragmentation until the rise of Harsha in the 7th century. However, the cultural and intellectual legacy of the Guptas continued to influence Indian civilization for centuries.