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Unit 4 - Notes

HIS291

Unit 4: Mauryan Period

1. The Mauryas: Overview and Sources

The Mauryan Empire (c. 321–185 BCE) marks the first time the Indian subcontinent was unified under a single political umbrella. It represents a transition from proto-history to history due to the abundance of deciphered written sources and precise chronology.

Primary Sources

  • Literary Sources:
    • Arthashastra: Written by Kautilya (Chanakya). It is a treatise on statecraft, economic policy, and military strategy.
    • Indica: Written by Megasthenes (Greek ambassador). Though the original is lost, fragments survive in the works of later Greek writers (Strabo, Arrian). It provides details on city administration and social structure.
    • Mudrarakshasa: A 5th-century drama by Visakhadatta describing how Chandragupta overthrew the Nandas.
    • Buddhist Texts: Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa (Sri Lankan chronicles) and Divyavadana (Tibetan).
  • Archaeological Sources:
    • Ashokan Edicts: Rock Edicts (Major and Minor) and Pillar Edicts deciphered by James Prinsep in 1837.
    • Material Remains: Wooden palace at Kumhrar (Patna), Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW) pottery, and silver punch-marked coins.

Key Rulers

Chandragupta Maurya (321–297 BCE)

  • Founder: Overthrew the last Nanda ruler, Dhanananda, with the help of Chanakya.
  • Expansion: Conquered the Northwest, taking advantage of the power vacuum left by Alexander’s death.
  • Conflict with Seleucus: Defeated Seleucus Nicator (Alexander’s general) in 305 BCE.
    • Treaty: Chandragupta received the trans-Indus territories (Aria, Arachosia, Gedrosia). He married Seleucus's daughter and gifted 500 war elephants.
  • Religion: According to Jain tradition, he embraced Jainism, abdicated the throne, and migrated to Shravanabelagola (Karnataka) with Bhadrabahu, where he committed Sallekhana (death by slow starvation).

Bindusara (297–273 BCE)

  • Titles: Known to the Greeks as Amitrochates (Sanskrit: Amitraghata - Slayer of Foes).
  • Conquests: Consolidated the empire and extended Mauryan control into the Deccan (up to Mysore).
  • Foreign Relations: Maintained diplomatic ties with Antiochus I of Syria and Ptolemy II of Egypt.
  • Religion: Associated with the Ajivika sect.

Ashoka the Great (268–232 BCE)

  • Accession: Succeeded Bindusara after a fratricidal war (according to Buddhist legends).
  • Kalinga War (261 BCE): The turning point of his reign. The bloodshed (100,000 killed, 150,000 deported) filled him with remorse.
  • Conversion: He abandoned Bherighosha (conquest by war) in favor of Dhammaghosha (conquest by righteousness) and converted to Buddhism (under the influence of Upagupta).
  • Extent of Empire: Rallied from the Hindu Kush in the west to Bengal in the east, and from Kashmir in the north to Mysore in the south.

2. Ashoka’s Dhamma

Ashoka’s Dhamma was not a new religion or a sectarian philosophy. It was a code of conduct and a way of life designed to maintain social order and promote morality among a diverse population.

Nature of Dhamma

  • Secular Character: It contained no theological dogmas, rituals, or metaphysical concepts (like soul or god).
  • Synthesis: It was an ethical synthesis of the best elements of Buddhism, Brahmanism, and Jainism.
  • Social Ethics: Primarily concerned with social behavior and civic responsibility.

Core Principles

  1. Ahimsa (Non-violence): Non-injury to living beings (animals and humans).
  2. Respect: Obedience to parents, elders, and teachers.
  3. Generosity (Dana): Liberality towards friends, relatives, Brahmans, and Sramanas (monks).
  4. Tolerance: Respect for all religious sects (mentioned in Rock Edict XII).
  5. Truthfulness and Purity: Practicing truth, compassion, and purity of heart.
  6. Human Treatment: Kind treatment of slaves and servants.

Propagation of Dhamma

  • Dhamma Mahamatras: A special class of officers appointed to propagate Dhamma and look after the welfare of people.
  • Inscriptions: Ashoka engraved his messages on rocks and pillars in Prakrit (Brahmi and Kharosthi scripts) and Greek/Aramaic to reach the common people.
  • Foreign Missions: Sent emissaries to Sri Lanka (son Mahendra and daughter Sanghamitra), Syria, Egypt, Macedonia, and Cyrene.

3. Mauryan Administration

The Mauryas established a highly centralized, bureaucratic, and extensive administrative system, largely based on Kautilya’s Arthashastra.

Central Administration

  • The King: The supreme authority in legislation, judiciary, and executive matters. Though autocratic, the ideal was a "Paternal Despotism" (Ashoka stated: "All men are my children").
  • Mantriparishad: A council of ministers to advise the king. Key members included the Purohita (Priest), Senapati (Commander-in-chief), and Yuvaraja (Crown Prince).

Bureaucracy (Tirthas and Adhyakshas)

The administration was run by high officials known as Tirthas (18 in number) and superintendents known as Adhyakshas (27 in number).

  • Samharta: Chief collector of revenue.
  • Sannidhata: Chief treasurer.
  • Sitadhyaksha: Superintendent of agriculture/crown lands.
  • Panyadhyaksha: Superintendent of commerce.
  • Sulka-adhyaksha: Superintendent of tolls/customs.

Provincial Administration

The empire was divided into provinces (Chakra), usually ruled by royal princes (Kumaras or Aryaputras).

  1. Uttarapatha (Northern): Capital at Taxila.
  2. Avantiratha (Western): Capital at Ujjain.
  3. Dakshinapatha (Southern): Capital at Suvarnagiri.
  4. Prachya (Eastern/Central): Capital at Pataliputra (Directly under the King).
  5. Kalinga: Capital at Tosali (Added by Ashoka).
  • District Administration: Provinces were divided into districts (Ahara or Vishaya) governed by Vishayapatis.
  • Village Administration: The village (Grama) was the smallest unit, headed by the Gramika.

Municipal Administration (City of Pataliputra)

Megasthenes described the administration of Pataliputra in detail. It was governed by a commission of 30 members, divided into 6 boards of 5 members each:

  1. Industrial Arts.
  2. Entertainment of Foreigners.
  3. Registration of Births and Deaths.
  4. Trade and Commerce.
  5. Supervision of Manufactured Goods.
  6. Collection of Taxes (Tithe/10th of sales).

Military Administration

A commission of 30 members divided into 6 boards:

  1. Infantry
  2. Cavalry
  3. War Elephants
  4. Chariots
  5. Navy (Admiralty)
  6. Transport and Commissariat

Espionage System

A robust spy system described as the "eyes and ears" of the king.

  • Gudhapurushas: Secret agents.
  • Sanstha: Stationary spies posted in one place.
  • Sanchara: Wandering spies.

4. Art of the Mauryas

Mauryan art marks a shift from the use of wood and brick to stone. It is generally classified into two categories: Royal/Court Art and Popular/Folk Art.

A. Court Art (Royal Patronage)

1. Palaces

  • Kumhrar (Pataliputra): Remains of a massive 80-pillared hall.
  • Megasthenes described the palace as superior to those of Susa and Ecbatana (Persia). Originally made of wood, reflecting high craftsmanship.

2. Pillars

  • Ashokan pillars are the masterpiece of Mauryan art.
  • Material: Chunar sandstone.
  • Structure: Monolithic (single stone) shafts, highly polished (lustrous Mauryan polish).
  • Capitals: The top of the pillar featured animal sculptures (Lion, Bull, Elephant).
  • Example: The Lion Capital at Sarnath (National Emblem of India). It features four lions standing back-to-back, symbolizing power and the spread of Dharma.

3. Stupas

  • Solid domes constructed over the relics of Buddha.
  • Ashoka is credited with building 84,000 stupas.
  • Sanchi Stupa: Originally built of brick by Ashoka (later enlarged with stone by Shungas).

4. Caves (Rock-Cut Architecture)

  • Beginning of rock-cut architecture in India.
  • Barabar Caves (Bihar): Built for Ajivika monks.
  • Lomas Rishi Cave: Famous for its highly polished interior and decorative arched entrance.

B. Popular/Folk Art

Independent of royal patronage, created by local artists.

1. Sculpture

  • Yaksha and Yakshini Figures: Earth spirits and fertility deities.
  • Didarganj Yakshini: A life-size sandstone statue holding a fly-whisk (Chauri). Notable for its polished surface and feminine grace.
  • Parkham Yaksha: Massive, standing figure found near Mathura.

2. Terracotta

  • Small clay figurines used as toys or religious objects (mother goddesses).

5. Causes of Decline of the Maurya Empire

The Mauryan Empire disintegrated rapidly after the death of Ashoka (232 BCE). The last king, Brihadratha, was assassinated by his commander-in-chief, Pushyamitra Shunga, in 185 BCE.

Key Factors

1. Brahmanical Reaction (H.P. Shastri's Theory)

  • Ashoka’s policy of Dhamma prohibited animal sacrifices and undermined the prestige of Brahmans.
  • The appointment of Dhamma Mahamatras intruded into priestly privileges.
  • Pushyamitra Shunga led a Brahmanical revolution. (Note: This theory is contested by many modern historians).

2. Financial Crisis (D.D. Kosambi's Theory)

  • Maintenance of a huge standing army and bureaucracy drained the treasury.
  • Extensive donations to Buddhist monks by Ashoka depleted royal resources.
  • Evidence: Debasement (lowering quality) of silver coins in the later Mauryan period.

3. Oppressive Rule in Provinces

  • While the center was well-governed, provincial governors (Amatyas) were often oppressive.
  • Revolts in Taxila during Bindusara’s reign and again during Ashoka’s reign indicate local discontent.

4. Highly Centralized Administration

  • The system relied heavily on the personal ability of the king.
  • When weak rulers (like Dasharatha or Brihadratha) succeeded Ashoka, the centralized control collapsed, and provinces declared independence.

5. Neglect of the North-West Frontier

  • Ashoka was preoccupied with internal missionary activities and neglected the defense of the Khyber Pass.
  • This allowed the Bactrian Greeks to invade India easily in the early 2nd century BCE.

6. Ashoka’s Pacific Policies

  • Some arguments suggest that Ashoka’s emphasis on non-violence (Ahimsa) weakened the martial spirit of the army, making it incapable of defending the empire.

Conclusion

The Mauryan Empire left a lasting legacy in Indian administration, art, and the spread of Buddhism. Its fall was not due to a single cause but a combination of weak successors, economic pressure, internal revolts, and external invasions.