Unit 3: The Great Aryans

I. The Early Vedic Period (Rig Vedic Age)

Timeline: c. 1500 – 1000 BCE
Primary Source: The Rig Veda (The oldest religious text in the world).

1. Geographical Extent

• Sapta Sindhu: The Early Aryans settled in the "Land of Seven Rivers" (modern Punjab and Haryana).
• The Rivers:
  • Indus (Sindhu) – Most mentioned river.
  • Saraswati – Considered the holiest river (Matetama, Devitama).
  • The five tributaries: Jhelum (Vitasta), Chenab (Asikni), Ravi (Parushni), Beas (Vipasa), Sutlej (Sutudri).
• Expansion: They had knowledge of the Himalayas (Himavant) but no knowledge of the Vindhyas or the Indian Ocean.

2. Polity (Political Structure)

• Tribal Structure: The polity was tribal rather than territorial. The tribe was called Jana.
• The King (Rajan):
  • The chief of the tribe.
  • Office was generally hereditary but could be elected by the tribal assembly.
  • Power: Limited; he was not an absolute monarch. His primary duty was the protection of the tribe and cattle (Gopis or protector of cows).
  • No standing army or regular taxation system.
• Tribal Assemblies: The King’s power was checked by assemblies:
  • Sabha: Council of elders/elites (included women).
  • Samiti: General assembly of the people.
  • Vidatha: Oldest assembly, performed social, religious, and military functions.
  • Gana: Assembly of the troops.
• Officers:
  • Purohita (High Priest): Most important official (e.g., Vashistha and Vishvamitra).
  • Senani (Army Chief).
  • Vrajapati (Officer of pasture lands).

3. Society

• Social Unit: The basic unit was the Kula (family), headed by the Kulapa (eldest male). The society was patriarchal.
• Position of Women:
  • Enjoyed a high status.
  • Educated and composed hymns (e.g., Lopamudra, Ghosa, Apala).
  • Could attend assemblies (Sabha and Vidatha).
  • No Child Marriage; Widow Remarriage (Niyoga) was allowed.
  • No Sati or Purdah system.
• Varna System:
  • Based on occupation, not birth.
  • Society was divided into Aryas (fair) and Dasas/Dasyus (indigenous dark-complexioned people).
  • Towards the end of the Rig Vedic period (Purusha Sukta of 10th Mandala), the four-fold division appeared: Brahman, Kshatriya, Vaishya, and Shudra.

4. Economy

• Pastoralism: Cattle rearing was the primary occupation. Cows were the measure of wealth. Wars were often fought for cattle (Gavisthi).
• Agriculture: Secondary occupation. Cultivated Yava (Barley). Shifting cultivation was common.
• Trade: System of Barter. Nishka (gold ornament) was used as a unit of value, though not yet a coin.
• Crafts: Chariot making, carpentry, weaving, and pottery (Ochre Coloured Pottery - OCP).

5. Religion

• Nature Worship: They worshipped personified powers of nature.
• Key Deities:
  • Indra (Purandara): The destroyer of forts and Rain God. Most important (250 hymns).
  • Agni: Fire God; intermediary between God and Man (200 hymns).
  • Varuna: God of water and upholder of natural order (Rita).
  • Soma: God of plants/intoxicating drink.
  • Female deities: Usha (Dawn) and Aditi (Mother of Gods).
• Rituals: Worship was performed through prayer and simple sacrifices (Yajna). No temples or idol worship.

II. The Later Vedic Period

Timeline: c. 1000 – 600 BCE
Sources: Samaveda, Yajurveda, Atharvaveda, Brahmanas, Aranyakas, and Upanishads.

1. Geographical Expansion

• Aryans moved eastward into the Gangetic Doab.
• The center of culture shifted from Punjab to Kurukshetra (Kuru-Panchala region).
• They cleared forests using fire and iron axes.
• Knowledge of the Eastern Seas and Vindhya mountains emerged.

2. Polity (State Formation)

• Territorial State (Janapada): The "Jana" (tribe) transformed into "Janapada" (territory).
• Kingship:
  • King became powerful and claimed absolute authority.
  • Emergence of "Divine Right of Kingship."
  • Adoption of grand titles: Samrat, Ekrat, Virat.
• Royal Rituals: To legitimize power.
  • Ashvamedha: Horse sacrifice for territorial control.
  • Rajasuya: Consecration ceremony conferring supreme power.
  • Vajapeya: Chariot race to prove superiority.
• Administration:
  • Popular assemblies (Sabha/Samiti) lost power and were dominated by chiefs and Brahmins. Women were excluded.
  • Taxation became regular (Bali became mandatory tax, collected by Sangrihitri).
  • Standing army concept began to emerge.

3. Society

• Varna System (Rigid):
  • Based on birth/heredity.
  • Brahmanas: Priests, teachers (claimed highest status).
  • Kshatriyas: Rulers, warriors.
  • Vaishyas: Agriculturists, traders (the only tax-paying class).
  • Shudras: Servers of the upper three varnas; denied education (Upanayana).
• Gotra System: Institution of Gotra (clan exogamy) appeared. Marriage within the same Gotra was forbidden.
• Ashrama System: The four stages of life evolved:
  1. Brahmacharya (Student life).
  2. Grihastha (Householder).
  3. Vanaprastha (Hermit/Partial retirement).
  4. Sannyasa (Ascetic/Renunciation - fully developed later).
• Status of Women: Declined significantly. Denied education and entry to assemblies. Child marriage began. Birth of a daughter was considered a source of misery (Aitareya Brahmana).

4. Economy

• Iron Age: Widespread use of Iron (Krishna Ayas or Shyama Ayas) around 1000 BCE revolutionized agriculture (iron plowshares).
• Agriculture: Became the primary occupation. Rice (Vrihi) and Wheat (Godhuma) became staple crops.
• Crafts: Metalwork, leatherwork, jewelry.
• Pottery: Painted Grey Ware (PGW) culture.
• Urbanization: Growth of towns (Nagara) towards the end of the period (Hastinapur, Kaushambi). Guilds (Shrenis) began to form.

5. Religion and Philosophy

• Change in Pantheon: Indra and Agni lost importance.
  • Prajapati (The Creator/Brahma) became supreme.
  • Vishnu (The Preserver) and Rudra (The Destroyer/Shiva) gained prominence.
• Ritualism: Religion became complex, mechanical, and expensive. Dominance of Brahmanas and intricate sacrifices.
• Philosophical Reaction: Towards the end, a reaction against ritualism led to the Upanishads (Vedanta), focusing on Jnana (knowledge), Brahman (Universal Soul), and Atman (Individual Soul).

III. Religious Movements (6th Century BCE)

Causes for the Rise of Heterodox Sects (Buddhism & Jainism)

1. Religious Unrest: Complexity of Vedic rituals, expensive sacrifices, and corruption in the priestly class.
2. Varna System: Growing tension between Brahmins and Kshatriyas. Both Mahavira and Buddha were Kshatriyas who disputed Brahmanical supremacy.
3. Economic Factors: The rise of the Vaishya class (traders) who wanted a social status matching their economic power. They supported non-violent religions that favored trade.
4. Agricultural Needs: Vedic sacrifices involved the mass slaughter of cattle. The new iron-plow agriculture required the preservation of cattle, making the doctrine of Ahimsa (non-violence) economically necessary.

IV. Jainism

1. The Tirthankaras

• Jainism believes in 24 Tirthankaras (Ford-makers/Teachers).
• 1st: Rishabhadeva (Symbol: Bull).
• 23rd: Parsvanatha (Symbol: Snake). He proposed four vows: Ahimsa, Satya, Asteya, Aparigraha.
• 24th: Vardhamana Mahavira.

2. Life of Vardhamana Mahavira (540–468 BCE)

• Birth: Kundagrama (near Vaishali).
• Clan: Jnatrika clan (Kshatriya).
• Enlightenment: Attained Kaivalya (Omniscience) at age 42 under a Sal tree at Jrimbhikagrama. Became a Jina (Conqueror).
• Death: attained Nirvana at Pava (near Rajgir).

3. Doctrines of Jainism

• Triratna (Three Gems):
  1. Right Faith (Samyak Darshana).
  2. Right Knowledge (Samyak Jnana).
  3. Right Conduct (Samyak Charitra).
• Pancha Mahavratas (Five Great Vows):
  1. Ahimsa: Non-violence (most important).
  2. Satya: Truth.
  3. Asteya: Non-stealing.
  4. Aparigraha: Non-possession.
  5. Brahmacharya: Celibacy (Added by Mahavira).
• Philosophy:
  • Syadvada/Anekantavada: The theory of "maybe" or relativity of knowledge. Truth has many aspects.
  • Rejection of God as the creator; the Universe is eternal.
  • Belief in Karma and Transmigration of Soul.
  • Extreme penance and austerity to liberate the soul.

4. Jain Sects

Split occurred around 300 BCE due to a famine in Magadha.

1. Digambaras: "Sky-clad" (Naked). Orthodox followers of Bhadrabahu who moved South.
2. Shvetambaras: "White-clad". Followers of Sthulabhadra who stayed in Magadha.

5. Jain Councils

• 1st Council: Pataliputra (300 BCE). Chair: Sthulabhadra. Compilation of 12 Angas.
• 2nd Council: Valabhi (512 CE). Chair: Devardhi Kshamasramana. Final compilation of Jain texts.

V. Buddhism

1. Life of Gautama Buddha (563–483 BCE)

• Original Name: Siddhartha.
• Birth: Lumbini (Nepal).
• Clan: Sakya clan (hence called Sakyamuni).
• The Four Sights: An old man, a sick man, a dead body, and an ascetic. Led to his renunciation (Mahabhinishkramana).
• Enlightenment: Attained Nirvana at age 35 under a Peepal tree (Bodhi Tree) in Bodh Gaya.
• First Sermon: At Sarnath (Deer Park). Known as Dharmachakra Pravartana (Turning of the Wheel of Law).
• Death: Attained Mahaparinirvana at Kushinagar at age 80.

2. Doctrines of Buddhism

• The Four Noble Truths (Arya Satya):
  1. World is full of sorrow (Dukkha).
  2. The cause of sorrow is desire (Dukkha Samudaya/Tanha).
  3. Sorrow can be stopped (Dukkha Nirodha).
  4. The path to stop sorrow is the Eightfold Path (Magga).
• The Eightfold Path (Ashtangika Marga):
  • Right View, Right Resolve, Right Speech, Right Action, Right Livelihood, Right Effort, Right Mindfulness, Right Concentration.
• Key Concepts:
  • Ahimsa: Non-violence (though less extreme than Jainism).
  • Madhyam Marg: The Middle Path (avoiding extremes of luxury and austerity).
  • Nirvana: Extinction of desire and liberation from the cycle of birth and death.
  • Rejection of the authority of Vedas and the Soul (Anatta).
  • Equality: Open to all castes and women.

3. Buddhist Literature (Pali Canon)

• Vinaya Pitaka: Rules of discipline for monks.
• Sutta Pitaka: Buddha’s sermons/teachings (contains Dhammapada).
• Abhidhamma Pitaka: Philosophical interpretations.
• Jatakas: Stories of Buddha's previous births.

4. Buddhist Councils

5. Sects

• Hinayana (Lesser Vehicle): Orthodox. Did not worship Buddha as God. Used Pali.
• Mahayana (Greater Vehicle): Worshipped Buddha as God (Idol worship). Believed in Bodhisattvas. Used Sanskrit.
• Vajrayana (Thunderbolt Vehicle): Tantric Buddhism; emerged later (7th century CE).