Unit 6: Vocabulary and Reading Comprehension

I. Orientation — Building Meaning from Words and Texts

Vocabulary and reading comprehension are connected skills: understanding individual words supports sentence meaning, while understanding context helps readers interpret unfamiliar words. Effective communication requires selecting suitable expressions, recognizing implied meaning, and reading with a clear purpose.

• Meaning depends on context: A word or phrase may change meaning according to the sentence, speaker, relationship, and situation.
• Language has patterns: Phrasal verbs combine a verb and particle, while proverbs express commonly accepted practical wisdom.
• Reading is purposeful: Skimming gives a general overview; scanning locates specific information; close reading explains facts, ideas, tone, and implications.
• Evidence matters: Strong comprehension is based on words, examples, contrasts, sequence, and facts found in the text.
• Recall requires organization: Readers remember information more effectively when they identify the main idea, group supporting details, and restate the content.

II. Commonly Used Phrasal Verbs — Verb–Particle Combinations

A phrasal verb consists of a basic verb followed by an adverb or preposition, producing a meaning that may differ from the original verb. For example, look means “direct one’s eyes,” but look into means “investigate.”

A. Commonly used phrasal verbs

This subsection introduces frequent phrasal verbs used in everyday and academic communication.

• Bring up: To mention a topic.
  • Example: “She brought up the issue of delayed payments.”
• Carry out: To perform or complete a task, plan, or investigation.
  • Example: “The laboratory carried out a safety inspection.”
• Find out: To discover information.
  • Example: “The manager found out why the delivery was late.”
• Give up: To stop trying or to surrender something.
  • Example: “He did not give up despite repeated failures.”
• Look after: To take care of a person, place, or thing.
  • Example: “The assistant looks after the office records.”
• Look into: To investigate.
  • Example: “The committee will look into the complaint.”
• Put off: To postpone.
  • Example: “The meeting was put off until Friday.”
• Set up: To establish, arrange, or prepare something.
  • Example: “The technicians set up the new equipment.”
• Take over: To assume control or responsibility.
  • Example: “A new supervisor took over the department.”
• Turn down: To reject or reduce.
  • Example: “The company turned down the proposal.”
• Turn up: To appear unexpectedly or increase volume, heat, or intensity.
  • Example: “The missing file finally turned up.”
• Work out: To solve, develop successfully, or exercise.
  • Example: “The team worked out a practical solution.”

B. Grammatical patterns of phrasal verbs

Correct placement and separability are important because phrasal verbs do not all follow the same grammatical pattern.

• Separable transitive verbs: The object may come between the verb and particle.
  • “Please turn off the light” or “Please turn the light off.”
  • With a pronoun, separation is required: “Turn it off,” not “Turn off it.”
• Inseparable verbs: The object follows the complete phrase.
  • “The auditors looked into the accounts,” not “looked the accounts into.”
• Intransitive verbs: No direct object is needed.
  • “The plane took off” and “The guests turned up.”
• Literal and idiomatic meanings: “The child climbed up the stairs” is literal; “The prices went up” uses went up in a non-literal sense.

III. Use of phrasal verbs in day-to-day speaking and professional life — Register and Appropriateness

Phrasal verbs make speech natural and efficient, but formal writing may sometimes require a single-word alternative. The appropriate choice depends on audience, purpose, and level of formality.

A. Use of phrasal verbs in day-to-day speaking and professional life

This subsection explains how phrasal verbs function in informal conversation, workplace interaction, and professional writing.

• Everyday conversation: Phrasal verbs often sound more natural than formal synonyms.
  • “Can you find out the train time?” is conversational; “Can you ascertain the train time?” is formal.
• Workplace instructions: Familiar phrasal verbs make directions direct and accessible.
  • “Please fill in this form,” “check over the figures,” and “send back the document.”
• Meetings and collaboration: They describe processes and responsibilities efficiently.
  • “Let us go over the agenda,” “work out” a solution, and “follow up” on an action.
• Formal alternatives: Use Latinate verbs when precision or official style is required.
  • Carry out → conduct; put off → postpone; look into → investigate; set up → establish.
• Tone and relationship: “Hold on a moment” is friendly and conversational, while “Please remain on the line” is more formal and service-oriented.

B. Choosing phrasal verbs accurately

The speaker must consider both meaning and grammatical structure before using a phrasal verb.

• Check the object: “The manager called off the meeting” means cancelled it; “The meeting called off” is incorrect.
• Distinguish meanings: “Take up a task” means begin or accept it, while “take over a task” means assume control of it.
• Avoid excessive informality: In a legal report, “The company looked into the matter” may be replaced by “The company investigated the matter.”
• Use professional politeness: “Could you look into this issue?” is generally more tactful than “Look into this.”

IV. Contextual vocabulary — Inferring Meaning in Use

Contextual vocabulary is the process of understanding a word through the surrounding sentence, paragraph, and situation rather than relying only on a dictionary definition.

A. Contextual vocabulary

This subsection shows how readers use clues to determine the intended meaning of unfamiliar or polysemous words.

• Definition clues: The writer may explain the word directly.
  • “A transparent process, one that is open and easy to understand, builds trust.”
• Synonym clues: A nearby word may provide a similar meaning.
  • “The instructions were concise, or brief, and easy to follow.”
• Contrast clues: Words such as however, unlike, and although signal opposition.
  • “Unlike his usually timid colleague, Arun spoke confidently”; timid means shy or lacking confidence.
• Example clues: Specific instances clarify a general word.
  • “Renewable resources, such as sunlight, wind, and flowing water, reduce dependence on fossil fuels.”
• Grammatical clues: A word’s position and form indicate whether it is a noun, verb, adjective, or adverb.
• Emotional and situational clues: “The relieved passengers smiled after the storm ended” suggests that relieved means freed from anxiety.

B. Word relationships and collocation

Words are best learned with their common partners and grammatical behavior.

• Collocation: Certain words naturally occur together.
  • We say “make a decision,” “reach an agreement,” and “heavy rain,” not usually “do a decision” or “strong rain.”
• Prefixes and suffixes: Un- often signals opposition, as in unfair; -less indicates absence, as in careless.
• Connotation: Economical suggests efficient use of resources, while cheap may suggest poor quality.
• Contextual substitution: Replace an unfamiliar word mentally with a possible synonym and check whether the sentence remains logical.

V. Proverbs — Compressed Practical Wisdom

A proverb is a short, memorable saying that expresses a general observation, moral lesson, or practical principle. Its meaning is often figurative rather than literal.

A. Proverbs

This subsection explains how proverbs communicate advice through concise images and comparisons.

• “A stitch in time saves nine”: Solving a small problem early prevents greater work later; repairing a loose button immediately illustrates the principle.
• “Actions speak louder than words”: Behaviour provides stronger evidence of intention than promises.
• “Where there is a will, there is a way”: Determination can help a person overcome obstacles, though it does not remove every practical limitation.
• “All that glitters is not gold”: Attractive appearance does not guarantee real value.
• “Two heads are better than one”: Cooperative thinking may produce a better solution than working alone.
• Figurative interpretation: “Don’t put all your eggs in one basket” advises diversification, not merely careful handling of eggs.
• Cultural and situational use: A proverb should suit the context; using a humorous saying in a serious professional complaint may weaken the intended tone.

VI. Skimming and scanning techniques — Rapid Reading Strategies

Skimming and scanning are selective reading methods. Skimming identifies general meaning, whereas scanning searches for a particular fact, word, number, or name.

A. Skimming and scanning techniques

This subsection distinguishes the purpose, procedure, and evidence used in each technique.

• Skimming for overview: Read the title, headings, opening sentences, keywords, and conclusion to identify the subject and broad argument.
  • A report titled “Urban Water Management” with headings such as Demand, Shortages, and Solutions clearly signals its structure.
• Scanning for specific information: Move quickly through the text looking for a target such as “2024,” “Dr. Rao,” or “65 percent.”
• Do not read identically: Skimming asks “What is this text mainly about?” Scanning asks “Where is the exact information I need?”
• Use visual signals: Bold type, lists, tables, dates, capital letters, and repeated terms guide the eye.
• Confirm the result: After locating a keyword, read the surrounding sentence because the word may appear in a different context.

VII. Identifying the main idea — Central Meaning and Support

The main idea is the central point the writer wants the reader to understand. It may be stated directly or inferred from repeated details.

A. Identifying the main idea

This subsection explains how to separate the controlling idea from examples and minor information.

• Topic versus main idea: “Remote work” is a topic; “Remote work can improve flexibility when organizations provide clear communication systems” is a main idea.
• Topic sentence: It often appears at the beginning or end of a paragraph, although some paragraphs develop the idea gradually.
• Repeated concepts: Repeated words, examples, or contrasts reveal emphasis.
• Supporting details: Statistics, explanations, and illustrations support the main idea but are not themselves the whole point.
• Paragraph summary: Reduce the paragraph to one sentence using your own words and excluding unnecessary examples.

VIII. Inference-based comprehension — Reading Beyond Explicit Statements

Inference is a logical conclusion drawn from textual evidence and background knowledge. It is not an unsupported guess.

A. Inference-based comprehension

This subsection shows how readers interpret implications that the author does not state directly.

• Combine evidence: If “the streets were empty,” “shops had closed,” and “the warning sirens continued,” the reader may infer a serious emergency.
• Distinguish fact from inference: “The office closed at five” is explicit; “Employees were probably expected to leave” is an inference.
• Use cautious language: Appropriate conclusions include “suggests,” “implies,” and “probably,” especially when evidence is indirect.
• Avoid over-inference: Do not assume a character is dishonest merely because a report contains an error unless the text provides supporting behaviour.

IX. Fact-based comprehension — Locating Verifiable Information

Fact-based comprehension focuses on information directly stated in a passage, including names, dates, causes, sequences, comparisons, and numerical details.

A. Fact-based comprehension

This subsection explains how to identify answers that can be verified directly in the text.

• Locate exact evidence: For “When did the project begin?” search for a date or time expression rather than relying on memory.
• Track reference words: Pronouns such as it, they, and this process must be connected to their earlier nouns.
• Recognize paraphrase: “The scheme reduced expenses” and “The plan lowered costs” express the same fact with different vocabulary.
• Check qualifiers: Words such as some, usually, only, and the first limit the accuracy of a statement.
• Follow sequence: Terms such as initially, later, and finally establish chronological relationships.

X. Author's purpose and tone — Intention and Attitude

The author’s purpose is the reason for writing; tone is the attitude conveyed toward the subject or audience. Both are identified through content, language, and organization.

A. Author's purpose and tone

This subsection explains how purpose and tone shape interpretation.

• Purpose to inform: Definitions, data, neutral explanations, and headings are common in an informational report.
• Purpose to persuade: A claim supported by reasons, evidence, and recommendations indicates an argumentative purpose.
• Purpose to entertain: Humour, suspense, dialogue, and vivid description often indicate entertainment.
• Purpose to criticize or warn: Negative evaluation, highlighted risks, and urgent recommendations may signal criticism or warning.
• Tone through word choice: Innovative and remarkable suggest approval; wasteful and alarming suggest disapproval.
• Balanced or objective tone: Cautious terms such as may, appears, and evidence suggests indicate restraint rather than certainty.

XI. Read and recall — Active Retention of Meaning

Read and recall is a method in which the reader pauses after a section and reconstructs its meaning without looking back. It converts passive reading into active learning.

A. Read and recall

This subsection presents a practical sequence for retaining ideas, vocabulary, and evidence.

• Read in units: Complete a paragraph or short section, then stop rather than waiting until the entire chapter is finished.
• Recall the main idea: State the paragraph’s central message in one sentence, such as “Early planning reduces project delays.”
• Retrieve supporting details: Remember two or three concrete points, such as a cause, example, date, or result.
• Record vocabulary in context: Write “carry out = perform; carry out an inspection,” not merely “carry out = do.”
• Organize relationships: Use a brief chain such as “problem → cause → effect → solution.”
• Check and correct: Compare the recall with the passage, add missing evidence, and remove details that were not actually stated.
• Use delayed recall: Reconstruct the structure later from headings and keywords; this strengthens memory more effectively than repeated rereading alone.