Unit 8: Religious Movements - Subjective Questions

Jainism is an ancient Indian religion that emphasizes self-discipline, non-violence and liberation from the cycle of birth and death. The word Jina means a spiritual conqueror who has overcome worldly desires.

Its fundamental principles include:

• Ahimsa: One must not injure any living being through thought, speech or action.
• Satya: A person should always speak the truth.
• Asteya: One should not take anything that has not been willingly given.
• Aparigraha: Attachment to material possessions should be avoided.
• Brahmacharya: Chastity and control over sensual desires are essential.
• Triratna: Liberation is achieved through Right Faith, Right Knowledge and Right Conduct.
• Karma and rebirth: Actions bind the soul to the cycle of rebirth.

Jainism teaches that every living being possesses a soul and that liberation, or moksha, is attained by purifying the soul through ethical conduct and austerity.

Vardhamana Mahavira was the twenty-fourth Tirthankara of Jainism. He was born at Kundagrama near Vaishali, traditionally in the sixth century BCE. His father, Siddhartha, was the chief of the Jnatrika clan, while his mother, Trishala, was connected with the ruling family of the Licchavis.

Important stages of his life were:

• He was brought up in a prosperous Kshatriya family.
• According to Jain tradition, he married Yashoda and had a daughter.
• At about the age of thirty, he renounced domestic life in search of spiritual truth.
• He practised severe austerities, meditation and self-control for approximately twelve years.
• He attained Kevala Jnana, or perfect knowledge, at the age of forty-two.
• Thereafter, he became known as Mahavira, the great hero, and Jina, the conqueror of passions.
• He travelled through eastern India, preaching to monks, nuns and householders.
• He attained nirvana at Pavapuri, traditionally at the age of seventy-two.

His life became an example of renunciation, non-violence and complete mastery over desires.

Mahavira did not claim to establish an entirely new religion; Jain tradition presents him as the last of twenty-four Tirthankaras. Nevertheless, he played a decisive role in organizing and popularizing Jainism.

His major contributions were:

• Systematization of doctrine: He clearly formulated the ethical principles of ahimsa, truth, non-stealing, non-possession and celibacy.
• Emphasis on the Triratna: He taught that Right Faith, Right Knowledge and Right Conduct together lead to liberation.
• Strict interpretation of non-violence: He extended moral consideration to animals, plants and minute forms of life.
• Organization of the community: He established a fourfold order consisting of monks, nuns, laymen and laywomen.
• Use of popular language: His teachings were communicated in Ardhamagadhi Prakrit, making them accessible to ordinary people.
• Opposition to ritualism: He rejected animal sacrifices, hereditary privilege and the authority of the Vedas.
• Ethical discipline: He prescribed strict vows for ascetics and less severe vows for householders.
• Missionary activity: His journeys in Magadha, Anga and Videha helped create a stable community of followers.

Thus, Mahavira transformed earlier Jain teachings into a disciplined religious movement with a durable doctrine and institutional structure.

Jain philosophy explains liberation through the interconnected concepts of Triratna, karma and moksha.

Triratna, or the Three Jewels, consists of:

• Samyak Darshana: Right Faith in spiritual truth and the teachings of the Tirthankaras.
• Samyak Jnana: Right Knowledge of reality, including the distinction between soul and matter.
• Samyak Charitra: Right Conduct based on vows, self-control and non-violence.

In Jainism, karma is understood as subtle matter that attaches itself to the soul because of passions and actions. Anger, pride, deceit, greed and violence increase karmic bondage. Ethical conduct and austerity prevent new karma from entering the soul and remove accumulated karma.

Moksha is the complete release of the soul from karmic matter and the cycle of rebirth. A liberated soul possesses infinite knowledge, perception, energy and bliss. Therefore, Jainism considers personal effort, discipline and purification—not divine grace or sacrifice—the path to salvation.

The Jain community gradually developed two major sects: Digambara and Shvetambara.

• Meaning: Digambara means "sky-clad," while Shvetambara means "white-clad."
• Monastic clothing: Digambara monks ideally renounce clothing as a symbol of complete non-possession. Shvetambara monks and nuns wear white garments.
• Sacred texts: Shvetambaras accept a collection of Agamas as canonical scriptures. Digambaras hold that the original canonical texts were lost.
• Women and liberation: Traditional Digambara doctrine maintains that rebirth as a man is necessary before final liberation. Shvetambaras accept that women can attain liberation directly.
• Mahavira's domestic life: Shvetambara tradition states that Mahavira married Yashoda. Digambara tradition generally regards him as having remained unmarried.
• Images: Digambara images of Tirthankaras are usually unclothed and unadorned, whereas Shvetambara images may be clothed, decorated and shown with open eyes.

Despite these differences, both sects accept the Tirthankaras, non-violence, karma, rebirth, the Triratna and liberation as central principles.

Jainism continued to survive as an influential religion, but its expansion remained more limited than that of Buddhism and Brahmanical traditions. Several factors were responsible:

• Severe asceticism: Fasting, self-mortification and rigorous discipline were difficult for ordinary people to practise.
• Strict application of ahimsa: Extreme care toward all living beings made agricultural and certain occupational activities difficult for committed followers.
• Limited royal patronage: Jainism received support from rulers such as Chandragupta Maurya, Kharavela and some western and southern dynasties, but this patronage was neither continuous nor universal.
• Restricted geographical concentration: Jain communities became particularly strong in western and southern India but did not achieve equal strength in every region.
• Sectarian division: The emergence of Digambara and Shvetambara traditions weakened institutional unity, although both remained active.
• Competition from Buddhism: Buddhism possessed extensive monasteries, organized missionary networks and strong royal support in several periods.
• Revival of Brahmanical traditions: The growth of devotional Hinduism, temple worship and adaptable religious practices attracted a large population.
• Use of specialized literature: Although early teachers used Prakrit, later scholastic literature was not always easily understood by common people.
• Assimilation of practices: Some Jain ethical ideas, especially vegetarianism and non-violence, were absorbed into broader Indian traditions.

Therefore, it is more accurate to speak of Jainism's relative decline and limited spread, rather than its disappearance, because strong Jain communities survived and continued to contribute to Indian culture.

Gautama Buddha was born as Siddhartha Gautama at Lumbini, traditionally in the sixth century BCE. He belonged to the Shakya clan. His father was Suddhodana, and his mother, Maya, died shortly after his birth. He was brought up by Mahaprajapati Gautami.

According to Buddhist tradition:

• Siddhartha grew up in a protected and comfortable environment at Kapilavastu.
• He married Yashodhara and had a son named Rahula.
• His encounter with an old man, a sick person, a dead body and an ascetic revealed the realities of suffering and the possibility of spiritual release.
• At about the age of twenty-nine, he left his family and palace. This event is known as the Great Renunciation.
• He studied under renowned teachers and then practised severe austerities.
• Realizing that neither luxury nor self-torture brought wisdom, he adopted the Middle Path.

His renunciation was therefore motivated by a search for a permanent solution to old age, disease, death and human suffering.

After abandoning extreme austerities, Siddhartha accepted food, recovered his strength and meditated beneath a pipal tree at Bodh Gaya. At about the age of thirty-five, he attained Bodhi, or enlightenment, and became the Buddha, meaning the "Awakened One."

Major events after enlightenment included:

• First sermon: At the Deer Park in Sarnath, he preached to five former companions. This event is called the Turning of the Wheel of Dharma.
• Formation of the Sangha: His first disciples formed the nucleus of the Buddhist monastic order.
• Missionary journeys: For around forty-five years, he travelled through Magadha, Kosala and nearby regions.
• Broad social appeal: He admitted individuals from different social backgrounds into the Sangha and eventually supported an order of nuns.
• Royal and mercantile support: Rulers such as Bimbisara and Prasenajit, along with merchants like Anathapindika, supported the movement.
• Mahaparinirvana: He died at Kushinagara at about the age of eighty and attained final nirvana.

His career transformed a personal spiritual realization into an organized ethical and religious movement.

The Four Noble Truths form the foundation of the Buddha's teaching:

1. Dukkha: Conditioned existence involves suffering, dissatisfaction and impermanence.
2. Samudaya: Suffering arises from craving, attachment and ignorance.
3. Nirodha: Suffering can end when craving and ignorance are extinguished.
4. Magga: The way to end suffering is the Noble Eightfold Path.

The Noble Eightfold Path includes:

• Right View: Understanding the Four Noble Truths.
• Right Intention: Cultivating renunciation, goodwill and harmlessness.
• Right Speech: Avoiding lies, slander and harmful speech.
• Right Action: Refraining from killing, stealing and misconduct.
• Right Livelihood: Earning a living without harming others.
• Right Effort: Preventing and overcoming unwholesome mental states.
• Right Mindfulness: Maintaining awareness of body, feelings and mind.
• Right Concentration: Developing disciplined meditation.

These eight practices are commonly grouped under wisdom, ethical conduct and mental discipline. Together, they remove the causes of suffering and lead toward nirvana. The path is called the Middle Path because it avoids both sensual indulgence and extreme self-mortification.

Gautama Buddha made lasting contributions to religion, ethics and social thought in ancient India.

• Ethical interpretation of religion: He emphasized moral conduct, compassion and wisdom rather than sacrifice and ceremonial ritual.
• Analysis of suffering: Through the Four Noble Truths, he presented suffering as a condition with identifiable causes and a practical remedy.
• Middle Path: He rejected both luxury and severe self-torture, advocating a balanced spiritual discipline.
• Challenge to social exclusiveness: He taught that spiritual progress depended on conduct rather than birth and admitted people from various social groups into the Sangha.
• Use of popular speech: His teachings were transmitted in languages understood by wider sections of society rather than being restricted to Sanskrit learning.
• Organization of the Sangha: He created disciplined orders of monks and nuns, supported by lay followers.
• Intellectual contribution: Teachings such as impermanence, dependent origination and non-self encouraged rational reflection on human existence.
• Cultural influence: Buddhism inspired literature, education, painting, sculpture and architecture across India and Asia.

Although the Buddha did not organize a political revolution against caste, his ethical universalism and emphasis on conduct weakened claims of hereditary spiritual superiority.

Jainism and Buddhism emerged from the broader Shramana tradition and shared several features, but they also differed significantly.

Similarities:

• Both questioned Vedic authority and the necessity of animal sacrifice.
• Both accepted karma, rebirth and liberation from worldly existence.
• Both emphasized ethical conduct, self-discipline and renunciation.
• Both created monastic orders and also recognized lay followers.
• Both used popular languages to communicate their teachings.
• Both received support from merchants, urban groups and some rulers.

Differences:

• Jainism accepts an eternal individual soul, or jiva. Buddhism teaches anatta, the absence of a permanent, unchanging self.
• Jainism regards karma as subtle matter binding the soul. Buddhism explains karma primarily in terms of intentional action and its consequences.
• Jain asceticism is generally more rigorous. Buddhism recommends the Middle Path between indulgence and self-mortification.
• Jainism applies non-violence with exceptional strictness. Buddhism also values non-violence but generally follows less extreme rules.
• Jain moksha is the soul's complete freedom from karmic matter. Buddhist nirvana is the extinction of craving, ignorance and the conditions producing rebirth.

Thus, both movements sought liberation through personal effort, but their views of the self, karma and ascetic discipline were distinct.

The spread of Buddhism resulted from a combination of doctrinal, social, institutional and political factors.

• Simplicity and practicality: The Four Noble Truths and Eightfold Path offered a clear explanation of suffering and a practical ethical path.
• Middle Path: Its rejection of both ritual luxury and extreme austerity appealed to broad sections of society.
• Popular languages: Buddhist teachers used forms of Prakrit and later regional languages, making the teachings accessible.
• Social openness: Membership of the Sangha was not formally restricted by caste or occupation.
• Organized Sangha: Monks and nuns preserved teachings, trained disciples and conducted missionary activities.
• Royal patronage: Ashoka provided decisive support, while later rulers such as Kanishka and several regional dynasties also patronized Buddhism.
• Merchant support: Traders funded monasteries and carried Buddhist ideas along commercial routes.
• Monasteries and educational centres: Institutions such as Nalanda became centres of learning and attracted students from distant regions.
• Adaptability: Mahayana Buddhism's Bodhisattvas, devotional practices and sacred images increased popular appeal.
• Missionary work: Missions travelled to Sri Lanka, Central Asia, Southeast Asia and eventually China, Korea and Japan.
• Art and literature: Stupas, sculptures, paintings and narratives communicated Buddhist ideas visually and emotionally.

The interaction of ethical appeal, effective organization, trade networks and state support transformed Buddhism into a major international religion.

Emperor Ashoka was one of the most important royal patrons of Buddhism. After the destructive Kalinga War, he expressed remorse and adopted a policy centred on Dhamma.

His contribution included:

• He personally supported Buddhist institutions and visited sacred places associated with the Buddha.
• He is traditionally connected with the Third Buddhist Council at Pataliputra.
• He encouraged missions to different regions of India and outside the subcontinent.
• Buddhist tradition associates his son Mahinda and daughter Sanghamitta with the transmission of Buddhism to Sri Lanka.
• He built or enlarged stupas and supported monasteries.
• His rock and pillar edicts promoted compassion, tolerance, non-violence, respect for parents and humane administration.
• He appointed officials known as Dhamma Mahamatras to encourage moral welfare.
• His inscriptions communicated ethical ideas to a wide population in accessible languages and scripts.

Ashoka did not impose Buddhism by force. His broader Dhamma promoted social harmony among different religious communities. Nevertheless, his patronage gave Buddhism prestige, resources and an extensive geographical reach.

The Sangha was the organized community of Buddhist monks and nuns. Along with the Buddha and the Dhamma, it formed one of the Three Jewels of Buddhism.

Organization:

• Entry into monastic life involved ordination and acceptance of disciplinary rules.
• Monks were called bhikkhus and nuns were called bhikkhunis.
• Their conduct was regulated by the Vinaya, which prescribed rules relating to food, clothing, residence, property and relations with others.
• Important matters were discussed in monastic assemblies, often through collective procedures.
• During the rainy season, monks generally remained in one place; permanent monasteries gradually developed from this practice.
• The Sangha depended largely on donations from lay followers, while monks offered teaching and religious guidance.

Social importance:

• It preserved and transmitted the Buddha's teachings.
• It created opportunities for individuals from different social backgrounds to pursue spiritual life.
• Monasteries became centres of learning, manuscript preservation, art and debate.
• Monks helped carry Buddhism along pilgrimage and trade routes.

The Sangha was therefore both a religious order and an important institution of ancient Indian society.

A stupa is a Buddhist commemorative and reliquary monument, usually constructed as a solid mound. Early stupas developed from ancient burial mounds and were used to preserve relics of the Buddha or other revered persons.

Its religious significance can be understood as follows:

• It enshrined bodily relics, objects associated with the Buddha or sacred texts.
• It symbolized the Buddha's parinirvana and continuing spiritual presence.
• Its form could represent the universe, the path to enlightenment or the mind of the Buddha.
• Devotees performed pradakshina, moving clockwise around the stupa while keeping it to their right.
• The stupa served as a focus for pilgrimage, worship, offerings and communal memory.
• Narrative carvings on railings and gateways taught episodes from the Buddha's previous births and life.
• The distribution of relics and construction of stupas helped create sacred Buddhist landscapes.

Unlike a hall designed mainly for entry and congregational worship, the early stupa was generally a solid structure meant to be approached and circumambulated.

The Great Stupa at Sanchi illustrates the developed form of Indian stupa architecture. Its major components are:

• Anda: The large hemispherical dome forming the main body of the monument. It symbolizes the cosmic mound and may contain sacred relics.
• Medhi: A raised circular terrace or drum supporting the dome and, in developed examples, providing a path for circumambulation.
• Harmika: A small square railing at the summit of the dome, marking a sacred enclosure.
• Yashti: The central mast rising from the harmika and representing the cosmic axis.
• Chhatras: One or more umbrella-shaped discs placed on the mast, symbolizing honour, spiritual authority and the Three Jewels.
• Vedika: The stone railing surrounding the stupa and defining the sacred area.
• Pradakshinapatha: The circumambulatory passage used by worshippers.
• Toranas: Decorated gateways placed at the cardinal directions. Their carvings portray Jataka stories, events from the Buddha's life, symbols and scenes of worship.

At Sanchi, the Buddha was frequently represented aniconically through symbols such as the Bodhi tree, empty throne, footprints and Dharma wheel. The monument combines architecture, sculpture and ritual movement into a unified religious experience.

A stupa, chaitya and vihara served different but related functions in Buddhist architecture.

• Stupa: A solid commemorative or reliquary monument, usually dome-shaped. It was a focus of pilgrimage, offerings and clockwise circumambulation.
• Chaitya: A prayer or worship hall, often containing a stupa at its apsidal end. Rock-cut chaityas commonly included a central nave, side aisles and a vaulted roof. The chaitya at Karle is a prominent example.
• Vihara: A residence for Buddhist monks or nuns. It generally consisted of cells arranged around a central hall or courtyard. Some later viharas included shrines and images of the Buddha.

Key distinctions:

• The stupa was primarily a sacred monument.
• The chaitya was primarily a congregational worship space.
• The vihara was primarily a monastic residence and educational centre.

These structures frequently existed together at major Buddhist establishments, serving the complementary needs of worship, pilgrimage, teaching and monastic life.

The customs of Buddhist monks and nuns were regulated by the Vinaya Pitaka. Their way of life was intended to cultivate simplicity, mindfulness and detachment.

Principal customs included:

• Renunciation: Members left ordinary household life and entered the Sangha through ordination.
• Simple possessions: Monastics used basic robes, an alms bowl and a limited number of necessary articles.
• Alms: They traditionally depended on food offered by lay supporters and were expected to receive it without greed or preference.
• Celibacy: Sexual relations were prohibited for ordained members.
• Non-violence: Killing and deliberate harm to living beings were forbidden.
• Truthfulness: Lying, stealing and fraudulent claims of spiritual attainment were serious offences.
• Meditation and study: Daily life included meditation, recitation, learning and teaching the Dhamma.
• Rainy-season residence: Monks and nuns generally avoided travelling during the monsoon and stayed at a fixed residence.
• Confession and discipline: Offences were acknowledged before the monastic community during regular observances.
• Respectful behaviour: Humility, controlled speech, modest conduct and respect for senior members were expected.

These customs distinguished monastic life from household life and supported the collective discipline of the Sangha.

Buddhist lay followers were not expected to follow the complete discipline of monks and nuns, but they were encouraged to lead ethical and generous lives.

Their principal duties and practices included:

• Taking refuge: Followers declared confidence in the Buddha, Dhamma and Sangha, collectively called the Three Jewels.
• Five Precepts: They undertook to avoid killing, stealing, sexual misconduct, false speech and intoxicants.
• Dana: Giving food, robes, medicine, land or financial support to the monastic community was considered meritorious.
• Respect for family and society: Lay ethics emphasized duties toward parents, teachers, spouse, children, workers, friends and religious persons.
• Observance days: On uposatha days, devoted laypersons could adopt additional precepts, meditate and listen to teachings.
• Pilgrimage: Sacred places such as Lumbini, Bodh Gaya, Sarnath and Kushinagara attracted pilgrims.
• Stupa worship: Devotees circumambulated stupas clockwise and offered flowers, lamps and incense.
• Merit-making: Good actions were believed to produce favourable consequences and support progress toward liberation.

Lay customs created a mutually supportive relationship: householders supplied material needs to the Sangha, while the Sangha provided instruction and moral guidance.

Jainism and Buddhism produced a far-reaching transformation in ancient Indian civilization.

Religious and philosophical impact:

• They questioned the exclusive authority of the Vedas and the centrality of animal sacrifice.
• They emphasized karma, rebirth, ethical conduct and liberation through personal effort.
• Jainism gave exceptional importance to non-violence and self-discipline, while Buddhism developed the Middle Path and a detailed analysis of suffering.

Social impact:

• Both opened organized religious life to wider social groups and judged spiritual worth primarily through conduct.
• They attracted merchants, artisans, rulers and urban communities.
• Their monastic institutions enabled collective study, discipline and charitable activity.

Literary and educational impact:

• Buddhist texts were preserved in languages such as Pali and Sanskrit, while Jain texts contributed greatly to Prakrit, Apabhramsha and regional literature.
• Monasteries developed into centres of education, debate and manuscript production.

Artistic and architectural impact:

• Buddhism inspired stupas, chaityas, viharas, sculptures and paintings at sites such as Sanchi, Bharhut, Ajanta and Karle.
• Jain patronage produced temples, manuscripts and refined images of the Tirthankaras.

Wider cultural impact:

• Buddhist missions carried Indian ideas and artistic forms across Asia.
• Jain principles influenced vegetarianism, philanthropy and traditions of non-violence.
• Both stimulated reform and adaptation within Brahmanical religion.

Thus, Jainism and Buddhism enriched Indian civilization by promoting ethical universalism, intellectual debate, organized monasticism and distinctive artistic traditions.