Unit 5: Grammar

Grammar is the system of rules that governs how words combine into meaningful, well-formed English sentences. This unit builds from the verb be and question-formation up through the full tense system, then layers on determiners, comparison, modification and modality. Everything rests on a few recurring categories.

• Parts of speech: the eight word-classes — noun, pronoun, verb, adjective, adverb, preposition, conjunction, interjection — each with a fixed syntactic job.
• Subject–verb agreement: the verb matches its subject in person and number: I am, she is, they are.
• Word order: standard English is Subject–Verb–Object (SVO): She reads books.
• Function words vs. content words: determiners, pronouns, prepositions and auxiliaries carry structure; nouns, main verbs and adjectives carry meaning.
• Open vs. closed classes: nouns and verbs admit new members freely; pronouns, prepositions and modals form fixed, closed sets.

II. Questions and the Verb be

How English turns statements into information questions.

A. wh-questions and statements with be

A statement with be places the verb after the subject; the wh-question inverts them.

• Statement pattern: Subject + be + complement — The office is open; They were tired.
• Forms of be: present am / is / are; past was / were.
• Inversion rule: move be in front of the subject and add the wh-word — Where is the office?
• Contrast of word order:
  1. Statement: She is a nurse. — subject first.
  2. wh-question: What is she? — wh-word, then verb, then subject.

B. questions with what, where, who and how

Each wh-word targets a different missing piece of information.

• what: asks about a thing or identity — What is this?
• where: asks about place — Where are the keys?
• who: asks about a person — Who is your teacher?; as subject it needs no inversion — Who called?
• how: asks about manner, condition or degree — How are you?, How old is she?
• Answer matching: where → a place (in the drawer); who → a person (my teacher); how + adjective → a measure (ten years old).

III. Pronouns and Determiners

The closed classes that replace or specify nouns.

A. subject pronouns

Subject pronouns stand in the subject slot and trigger verb agreement.

• The set: I, you, he, she, it, we, they.
• Position: before the verb — They work here, not Them work here.
• Agreement effect: he / she / it take the -s verb — He runs; others take the base form — We run.

B. possessive adjectives

Possessive adjectives sit before a noun to show ownership.

• The set: my, your, his, her, its, our, their.
• Rule: always followed by a noun — my book, their car; never stand alone.
• Contrast with contraction: its (possessive) vs. it's (= it is); their vs. they're.

C. pronouns

Pronouns replace a noun phrase to avoid repetition, varying by their grammatical role.

• Object pronouns: me, you, him, her, it, us, them — follow a verb or preposition: Call him; for us.
• Possessive pronouns: mine, yours, his, hers, ours, theirs — stand alone: The book is mine.
• Reflexive pronouns: myself, yourself, himself … — subject and object are the same person: She taught herself.

D. demonstratives

Demonstratives point to nouns by distance and number.

• Near: this (singular) / these (plural) — this pen, these pens.
• Far: that (singular) / those (plural) — that house, those houses.
• Dual use: determiner (this chair) or pronoun (Take this).

IV. Comparison and Quantity

Expressing degree and amount.

A. comparisons with adjectives and nouns

Comparison measures one thing against another in degree or quantity.

• Comparative of short adjectives: add -er + than — taller than, faster than.
• Superlative of short adjectives: the + -est — the tallest.
• Long adjectives: use more / most — more careful, the most careful.
• Irregulars: good → better → best; bad → worse → worst.
• Equality: as … as — as tall as his brother.
• Comparing nouns (quantity): more / fewer with count nouns — fewer chairs; more / less with non-count nouns — less water.

B. quantifiers

Quantifiers state how much or how many before a noun.

• Count nouns: many, few, a few, several — many students.
• Non-count nouns: much, little, a little — much time.
• Both types: some, any, a lot of, all, no — some milk, some books.
• some vs. any:
  1. some: affirmatives — I have some money.
  2. any: negatives and questions — I don't have any money; Do you have any?

V. Tenses and Frequency

How verbs locate action in time.

A. structure and functions of past, present and future tenses

Tense marks the time of an action and, through aspect, whether it is habitual, ongoing, completed or sequenced.

• Present simple — base (+s for third person); function: habits and facts — Water boils at 100°C.
• Present continuous — am/is/are + -ing; action happening now — She is writing.
• Present perfect — have/has + past participle; past action with present relevance — I have finished.
• Past simple — verb + -ed / irregular; completed past action — They arrived yesterday.
• Past continuous — was/were + -ing; action in progress in the past — He was sleeping.
• Past perfect — had + past participle; the earlier of two past events — She had left before I called.
• Future with will — will + base; prediction or decision — It will rain.
• Future with going to — am/is/are going to + base; plan or intention — We are going to travel.

B. adverbs of frequency

Frequency adverbs state how often an action occurs.

• The scale: always (100%) → usually → often → sometimes → rarely → never (0%).
• Position with ordinary verbs: before the main verb — She always arrives early.
• Position with be: after the verb — He is never late.

VI. Prepositions and Modifiers

Linking and refining words within the sentence.

A. prepositions of time and place

Prepositions fix a noun in time or space; the choice depends on precision.

• Time at: clock times, points — at 6 o'clock, at noon.
• Time on: days and dates — on Monday, on 5 May.
• Time in: months, years, long periods — in July, in 2026.
• Place at: a point — at the door.
• Place on: a surface — on the table.
• Place in: an enclosed space — in the room.

B. adverbs before adjectives

Degree adverbs placed before an adjective intensify or soften it.

• Intensifiers: very, really, extremely — very cold, extremely useful.
• Downtoners: quite, rather, fairly, slightly — fairly easy.
• Rule: the adverb precedes the adjective it modifies — a surprisingly good result.

C. modifiers with participles and prepositions

Phrases built on participles or prepositions modify nouns from either side.

• Present participle (-ing): describes an active quality — a running tap, the woman wearing a red coat.
• Past participle (-ed/irregular): describes a received state — a broken window, goods made in India.
• Prepositional phrase as modifier: follows the noun — the book on the shelf, the man in the corner.
• Position contrast:
  1. Single participle: before the noun — a boiling kettle.
  2. Participle/prepositional phrase: after the noun — the kettle boiling on the stove.

VII. Modal Verbs

Auxiliaries that colour a verb with possibility, obligation or ability.

A. modal verbs

Modals add the speaker's attitude to a main verb and never change form.

• Form: modal + base verb, no -s, no to — She can swim, not She can swims.
• Ability: can / could — He can drive; She could read at four.
• Permission / request: may, can, could — May I leave?; Could you help?
• Obligation: must, have to, should — You must stop; You should rest.
• Possibility: may, might, could — It might rain.
• Negatives: add not directly — cannot, must not, should not.
• Degrees of certainty:
  1. Strong: must — a confident deduction — She must be tired.
  2. Weak: might / may — a tentative guess — She might be tired.