Unit 3: Crop Production Package of Practices for Kharif Pulses - Subjective Questions

Origin:

• Pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan L. Millsp.) is believed to have originated in India, where considerable diversity of cultivated and wild forms occurs.
• Eastern Africa is regarded as an important secondary centre of diversity.
• Archaeological evidence indicates that pigeon pea has been cultivated in the Indian subcontinent for several thousand years.

Geographical distribution:

• It is mainly cultivated in tropical and subtropical regions between approximately N and S latitudes.
• Major pigeon pea-producing countries include India, Myanmar, Malawi, Tanzania, Kenya, Uganda and Mozambique.
• India is the world's largest producer and consumer of pigeon pea.
• In India, the crop is concentrated in Maharashtra, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Gujarat, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh and Jharkhand.
• It is grown as a sole crop, intercrop, mixed crop and occasionally as a perennial crop.

Pigeon pea is an important pulse, food, fodder and soil-improving crop.

• Human food: Its split seeds are consumed as dhal and provide about 20–22% protein along with carbohydrates, minerals and vitamins.
• Green vegetable: Tender pods and green seeds are eaten as vegetables.
• Animal feed: Seed husk, broken grains and crop residues are used as nutritious livestock feed.
• Fuel and construction: Dry stems are used as fuel, fencing material, thatching and basket-making in rural areas.
• Soil fertility: Root nodules fix atmospheric nitrogen through symbiosis with Rhizobium, benefiting the crop and succeeding crops.
• Soil conservation: Its deep root system improves soil structure, recycles nutrients from deeper layers and helps reduce erosion.
• Cropping-system value: Its slow initial growth and long duration make it suitable for intercropping with cereals, oilseeds and short-duration pulses.
• Income and employment: Grain, green pods and by-products provide cash income and employment to farm households.

Climatic requirements:

• Pigeon pea is a tropical and subtropical crop suited to warm conditions.
• A temperature range of about – is favourable for growth.
• It generally requires 600–1,000 mm of well-distributed rainfall, depending on variety and duration.
• Moist conditions favour vegetative growth, while relatively dry weather during flowering and maturity is desirable.
• Cloudy weather, continuous rain and high humidity during flowering can reduce pod setting and increase disease incidence.
• Frost and prolonged waterlogging are highly injurious.

Soil requirements:

• Well-drained loam to clay-loam soils are most suitable.
• The crop can tolerate moderate drought because of its deep root system.
• A soil pH of approximately 6.0–8.0 is generally suitable.
• Saline, strongly acidic and poorly drained soils should be avoided.
• Deep soils are preferred for long-duration varieties, while early varieties can be cultivated on comparatively lighter soils.

Pigeon pea varieties are commonly classified according to the number of days required to reach maturity.

• Extra-early varieties: Mature in about 90–120 days. Examples include ICPL 88039 and UPAS 120 under suitable environments.
• Early varieties: Mature in about 120–150 days. Examples include Pusa 992, Asha-type early selections and other regionally recommended cultivars.
• Medium-duration varieties: Mature in approximately 150–180 days. Examples include Asha (ICPL 87119), Maruti (ICP 8863) and BSMR 736.
• Long-duration varieties: Require more than 180 days and are commonly grown in frost-free regions. Examples include Bahar, C 11 and locally adapted long-duration cultivars.
• Hybrids: Cytoplasmic male sterility has enabled commercial hybrids such as ICPH 2671 in suitable regions.

Variety selection must be based on rainfall, soil depth, sowing time, cropping system, disease resistance and state recommendations. Duration and varietal examples can vary with location and season.

Land preparation and sowing:

• Prepare a well-drained seedbed with one deep ploughing followed by two or three harrowings.
• Sow with the onset of the monsoon, generally during June–July in rainfed areas.
• Use line sowing at a depth of about 4–6 cm.
• Adopt approximately 60–90 cm row spacing and 15–30 cm plant spacing, depending on variety and cropping system.
• A seed rate of about 12–20 kg/ha is commonly used for sole cropping; lower rates are used in intercropping.

Seed and nutrient management:

• Use certified seed and treat it with a recommended fungicide or biocontrol agent.
• Inoculate seed with appropriate Rhizobium and phosphate-solubilizing bacteria after chemical seed treatment has dried.
• Apply about 15–25 kg nitrogen and 40–60 kg phosphorus per hectare as a starter dose, with potassium and sulfur based on soil-test results.

Water and weed management:

• Keep the crop weed-free during the first 45–60 days.
• Use one or two intercultivations and hand weedings; a recommended pre-emergence herbicide may supplement mechanical control.
• Provide protective irrigation at branching, flowering and pod filling when water is available.
• Ensure drainage during heavy rainfall.

Plant protection and harvest:

• Monitor pod borer, pod fly, wilt and sterility mosaic disease and follow integrated management.
• Harvest when about 75–80% of pods turn brown, dry the plants and thresh after adequate drying.

Pigeon pea is particularly suitable for intercropping because it grows slowly during its early stages and later develops a deep root system.

Common systems:

• Pigeon pea + sorghum
• Pigeon pea + pearl millet
• Pigeon pea + maize
• Pigeon pea + soybean
• Pigeon pea + groundnut
• Pigeon pea + mung bean or urd bean
• Pigeon pea + cotton in suitable regions

Row arrangements such as 1:2, 1:4 or other locally recommended ratios are selected according to crop geometry and machinery.

Advantages:

• Better use of sunlight, water, nutrients and available land.
• Reduced risk of total crop failure under uncertain rainfall.
• Early income or food from the short-duration companion crop.
• Improved soil fertility through biological nitrogen fixation.
• Greater total productivity per unit area than poorly managed sole crops.
• Better ground cover and reduced erosion during early growth.
• More stable farm income and diversified produce.

Compatibility, maturity duration, plant population and competitive effects must be considered when selecting the companion crop.

Harvesting:

• Harvest when approximately 75–80% of the pods become brown and dry.
• Cut or uproot plants, dry them in the field or on a threshing floor, and thresh by beating or with a thresher.
• Clean and dry grain to a safe moisture level of about 9–10% before storage.

Expected yield:

• Under average rainfed management, grain yield is commonly about 0.8–1.5 tonnes/ha.
• With improved varieties, irrigation and good management, approximately 1.5–2.5 tonnes/ha or more may be obtained.
• Stalk yield is also economically useful as fuel and fodder.

Major yield constraints:

• Delayed sowing and poor plant population.
• Intermittent drought or waterlogging.
• Inadequate phosphorus, sulfur and micronutrient availability.
• Severe weed competition during early growth.
• Pod borer, pod fly and other insect pests.
• Fusarium wilt and sterility mosaic disease.
• Flower drop caused by cloudy weather, moisture stress or excessive vegetative growth.
• Use of unsuitable varieties and poor-quality seed.

Origin:

• Mung bean or green gram (Vigna radiata L. Wilczek) is considered to have originated in the Indian subcontinent or Indo-Burma region.
• Its wild progenitor, Vigna radiata var. sublobata, occurs in South and Southeast Asia.
• India possesses considerable genetic diversity of cultivated and wild mung bean.

Geographical distribution:

• The crop is widely grown in tropical and subtropical regions of Asia.
• Important producing countries include India, Myanmar, China, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Thailand, Indonesia and several African countries.
• In India, major producing states include Rajasthan, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Odisha, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana and Tamil Nadu.
• It is cultivated during the kharif season, as a summer crop under irrigation and as a rice-fallow crop in suitable regions.
• Its short duration permits its inclusion as a catch crop between two major crops.

Mung bean is a short-duration pulse of high nutritional and cropping-system value.

• Protein source: Seeds contain about 22–25% protein of relatively high digestibility.
• Food uses: Whole grains and dhal are used in soups, curries, snacks, sweets and fermented foods.
• Sprouts: Germinated seeds are rich in vitamins, minerals and bioactive compounds and are consumed as sprouts.
• Fodder: Green plants, straw and husk are used as livestock feed.
• Green manure: The crop can be incorporated into the soil to add organic matter and biologically fixed nitrogen.
• Soil improvement: Root nodules fix atmospheric nitrogen and help improve soil fertility for succeeding crops.
• Cropping intensity: Its short duration allows it to fit between wheat and rice, after mustard or potato, and in rice-fallow systems.
• Farm income: It provides an early marketable harvest and helps distribute production risk across seasons.

Climate:

• Mung bean requires a warm climate and is generally suited to temperatures of about –.
• Moderate rainfall of approximately 600–750 mm is adequate for a kharif crop when well distributed.
• Bright sunshine and relatively dry weather are desirable during flowering, pod formation and maturity.
• Heavy rain at flowering can cause flower drop, while rain at maturity may cause seed deterioration and sprouting in pods.
• The crop is sensitive to frost and prolonged waterlogging.

Soil:

• Well-drained sandy-loam to loam soils are ideal.
• A soil pH of about 6.0–7.5 is generally favourable.
• Heavy clay soils with poor drainage and highly saline or alkaline soils are unsuitable.
• Good drainage is especially important because mung bean roots are susceptible to oxygen deficiency and root diseases.
• A fine, firm seedbed supports uniform germination and establishment.

Examples of improved varieties:

• Pusa Vishal: Early, bold-seeded and suitable for certain northern production systems.
• SML 668: A popular short-duration variety suited to summer and kharif cultivation in recommended regions.
• Samrat: An improved variety cultivated in parts of northern and central India.
• IPM 02-3: A short-duration variety with useful disease resistance.
• IPM 2-14: Known as Shikha in some recommendations and suited to specified regions.
• HUM 16, Pant Mung 5 and MH 421: Other examples used under regional recommendations.

Selection criteria:

• Adaptation to the local season and rainfall pattern.
• Suitable maturity duration for the available crop window.
• Resistance or tolerance to mung bean yellow mosaic virus and powdery mildew.
• Uniform maturity and reduced pod shattering.
• High yield, acceptable seed size and preferred grain colour.
• Suitability for sole cropping, intercropping, summer cultivation or rice fallows.

Only varieties officially recommended for the specific agro-climatic zone should be selected.

Sowing and establishment:

• Prepare a fine, well-drained seedbed and sow with the onset of the monsoon, usually in June–July.
• Use approximately 12–20 kg seed/ha for line sowing, depending on seed size and recommended plant population.
• Maintain about 30–45 cm between rows and 7–10 cm between plants.
• Sow seed at a depth of approximately 3–5 cm.

Seed and nutrient management:

• Treat seed against seed- and soil-borne diseases, followed by inoculation with crop-specific Rhizobium and phosphate-solubilizing bacteria.
• Apply a starter dose of about 15–20 kg nitrogen and 40–50 kg phosphorus per hectare.
• Apply potassium, sulfur and zinc according to soil-test recommendations.

Weed and water management:

• The critical period of crop-weed competition is about 15–35 days after sowing.
• One hand weeding or intercultivation around 20–25 days after sowing is generally beneficial.
• Avoid water stagnation and provide drainage after heavy rain.
• If irrigation is available, flowering and pod filling are the most critical stages.

Harvesting:

• Pick mature pods in one or more rounds when they turn brown or black.
• Dry, thresh and reduce seed moisture to a safe level before storage.

Yield:

• Kharif mung bean commonly yields about 0.5–1.0 tonnes/ha under average rainfed conditions.
• Improved varieties with good management may produce about 1.0–1.5 tonnes/ha or more.
• Summer mung bean under assured irrigation can produce high and relatively stable yields.

Harvesting:

• Pods often mature unevenly, so two or three pickings may be required.
• Harvest when most pods become dark brown or black but before excessive shattering occurs.
• Dry harvested plants or pods, thresh them carefully and dry grain to about 9–10% moisture for storage.

Production constraints:

• Mung bean yellow mosaic virus and powdery mildew.
• Whitefly, thrips, aphids and pod borers.
• Waterlogging during the rainy season.
• Moisture stress during flowering and pod filling.
• Weed competition during early growth.
• Non-synchronous maturity, pod shattering and rain damage at harvest.
• Poor seed quality, inadequate plant population and imbalanced nutrition.

Origin and distribution:

• Urd bean or black gram (Vigna mungo L. Hepper) is considered to have originated in India.
• Its wild relatives and wide genetic diversity in the Indian subcontinent support this view.
• It is mainly cultivated in India and other South and Southeast Asian countries, including Myanmar, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal and Sri Lanka.
• Major producing states in India include Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Odisha.

Economic importance:

• Seeds contain about 22–25% protein and are consumed as dhal.
• It is used in foods such as idli, dosa, vada, papad and several fermented products.
• Its mucilaginous properties make it particularly valuable in traditional food preparation.
• Straw, husk and broken grain are used as animal feed.
• Biological nitrogen fixation improves soil fertility.
• It is grown as a sole crop, intercrop, catch crop and rice-fallow crop.
• Its short duration increases cropping intensity and provides quick returns to farmers.

Climatic requirements:

• Urd bean is a warm-season crop suited to tropical and subtropical climates.
• A temperature range of about – supports satisfactory growth.
• Moderate and well-distributed rainfall is favourable during vegetative growth.
• Dry, sunny weather is preferred during flowering, pod development and maturity.
• Heavy rain and high humidity encourage excessive vegetative growth, flower drop and disease.
• The crop is sensitive to frost and prolonged water stagnation.

Soil requirements:

• Well-drained loam to clay-loam soils are generally suitable.
• It can grow on relatively heavier soils than mung bean if drainage is adequate.
• A near-neutral soil reaction, generally around pH 6.0–7.5, is preferred.
• Strongly saline, highly acidic and poorly drained soils should be avoided.
• A firm seedbed with sufficient moisture promotes rapid and uniform germination.

Examples of improved varieties:

• T 9: A widely known traditional improved variety with broad adaptation.
• Pant U 19 and Pant U 31: Varieties recommended in parts of northern India.
• PU 31: A productive variety with useful adaptation in specified regions.
• LBG 20 and LBG 752: Varieties cultivated in parts of southern India.
• VBN 5, VBN 6 and VBN 8: Improved varieties developed for recommended southern production environments.
• Mash 114 and Uttara: Other regionally important examples.

Desirable characteristics:

• High and stable grain yield.
• Early or medium maturity suited to the available crop duration.
• Resistance to urd bean yellow mosaic virus, leaf crinkle and powdery mildew.
• Tolerance to drought, temporary excess moisture and lodging.
• Synchronous pod maturity and resistance to pod shattering.
• Erect or semi-erect growth suitable for dense planting and easier harvesting.
• Preferred seed colour, size, cooking quality and dhal recovery.

Variety choice should always follow state or agro-climatic-zone recommendations.

Field preparation and sowing:

• Prepare a clean, well-drained seedbed with adequate moisture.
• Sow with the onset of the monsoon, generally during June–July.
• Use about 15–25 kg seed/ha, depending on seed size, germination and method of sowing.
• Maintain approximately 30–45 cm row spacing and 7–10 cm plant spacing.
• Place seed about 3–5 cm deep.

Seed and nutrient management:

• Treat seed with a recommended fungicide or biocontrol formulation.
• Inoculate treated seed with appropriate Rhizobium and phosphate-solubilizing bacteria.
• Apply approximately 15–20 kg nitrogen and 40–50 kg phosphorus per hectare as a basal dose.
• Supply potassium, sulfur and micronutrients on the basis of soil-test results.

Weed and moisture management:

• Maintain a weed-free field during the first 30–40 days.
• Undertake one hand weeding or intercultivation about 20–25 days after sowing; use recommended herbicides where appropriate.
• Prevent waterlogging by providing drainage channels.
• Give protective irrigation at flowering and pod filling if rainfall is inadequate.

Harvest:

• Harvest when most pods become black and dry.
• Use multiple pickings where maturity is uneven and thresh only after proper drying.

Expected yield:

• Under average rainfed kharif conditions, urd bean generally produces about 0.5–1.0 tonnes/ha.
• Improved varieties under good crop management may yield approximately 1.0–1.5 tonnes/ha or more.
• Yield varies with season, variety, soil fertility, plant population and pest incidence.

Yield-limiting factors:

• Delayed sowing and inadequate plant stand.
• Heavy rainfall, poor drainage and waterlogging.
• Drought during flowering and pod filling.
• Severe early weed competition.
• Urd bean yellow mosaic virus, leaf crinkle, Cercospora leaf spot and powdery mildew.
• Whitefly, aphids, thrips, stem fly and pod borers.
• Nutrient deficiencies, especially phosphorus and sulfur deficiency.
• Non-synchronous maturity, pod shattering and harvest losses.
• Use of susceptible or poorly adapted varieties.

Timely sowing, resistant varieties, seed treatment, balanced nutrition and integrated pest management help close the yield gap.

Both crops are warm-season, short-duration legumes that fix nitrogen and require effective drainage.

Thus, pigeon pea occupies a longer production window and deeper soil profile, whereas mung bean and urd bean are better suited to short crop windows and intensive rotations.