Unit1 - Subjective Questions

Literary sources, particularly Persian chronicles (Tarikh), are the primary tools for reconstructing the history of the Delhi Sultanate.

Importance:

• Chronology: They provide a chronological sequence of events, reigns of Sultans, and military campaigns.
• Court Life: They offer detailed insights into the court protocols, administrative hierarchy, and the personal character of the Sultans.
• Socio-Political Conditions: While court-centric, they often shed light on the Iqta system, market regulations, and relations with the nobility.

Prominent Chronicles:

1. Tabaqat-i-Nasiri by Minhaj-us-Siraj: It is the principal source for the history of the early Turkish sultans up to the reign of Nasiruddin Mahmud (1260).
2. Tarikh-i-Firoz Shahi by Ziauddin Barani: This is a critical historical work covering the period from Balban to the early years of Firoz Shah Tughlaq, emphasizing the political philosophy of the era.

The Second Battle of Tarain fought between Prithviraj Chauhan and Muhammad Ghori is considered a watershed moment in Indian history.

Significance:

• Political Shift: It marked the end of Rajput hegemony in North India and laid the foundation of Turkish rule.
• Territorial Access: The victory opened the gates of the Gangetic Doab to the Turks, allowing Ghori's general, Qutbuddin Aibak, to occupy Delhi and Ajmer.
• Foundation of Sultanate: It set the stage for the establishment of the Delhi Sultanate in 1206 AD.
• Military Superiority: It demonstrated the superiority of the Turkish cavalry and mobile warfare over the slow-moving elephant forces of the Rajputs.

Iltutmish (1210–1236) is rightly called the real consolidator of the Delhi Sultanate because he transformed a loose military occupation into a cohesive political entity.

Key Achievements:

• Diplomacy: He saved the infant Sultanate from the Mongol wrath of Chengiz Khan by refusing asylum to Jalaluddin Mangbarani.
• Recognition: He secured a Letter of Investiture (Mansur) from the Caliph of Baghdad in 1229, giving the Sultanate legal and spiritual legitimacy.
• Administration: He organized the Iqta system, which centralized revenue collection and military mobilization.
• Nobility: He created the Turkan-i-Chahalgani (Corps of Forty) to create a loyal cadre of Turkish officers.
• Currency: He introduced standard coins—the silver Tanka and copper Jital—facilitating trade and commerce.

Ghiyasuddin Balban adopted the policy of 'Blood and Iron' to restore the prestige of the Crown and suppress internal rebellions.

Features of the Policy:

• Ruthlessness: It involved the merciless slaughter of rebels, brigands, and recalcitrant elements, particularly in the Mewat and Doab regions.
• Theory of Kingship: Balban projected himself as the Niyabat-i-Khudai (Deputy of God) and Zil-i-Ilahi (Shadow of God) to instill fear and awe.
• Crushing the Chahalgani: He systematically eliminated the power of the 'Corps of Forty' to remove threats to his absolute authority.
• Spy System: He established an efficient espionage system (Barids) to keep a check on nobles.

Impact: This policy effectively restored law and order, centralized power, and secured the frontiers against Mongol invasions.

Alauddin Khalji implemented radical market reforms to maintain a large standing army at low cost.

Objectives:

• To keep the prices of essential commodities low so that soldiers could survive on fixed, low salaries.
• To check inflation and ensure food security during droughts.

Key Features:

1. Price Fixation: Prices of all commodities, from grain to cloth (Sarai-i-Adl) and horses, were fixed by the state.
2. Administrative Machinery: He appointed a Shahna-i-Mandi (Market Superintendent) and Barids (intelligence officers) to monitor the market.
3. Strict Punishment: Shopkeepers using false weights were punished severely (e.g., cutting flesh from their body equal to the weight deficit).
4. State Granaries: Grain was stored to ensure supply during famines.

Muhammad bin Tughlaq shifted his capital from Delhi to Deogir (renamed Daulatabad) in 1327.

Rationale:

• Central Location: Daulatabad was centrally located, making it easier to control both the North and the Deccan.
• Mongol Threat: Delhi was frequently vulnerable to Mongol invasions; Daulatabad provided a safer strategic depth.

Failure and Impact:

• Logistical Nightmare: The forced migration of the entire population (elite and commoners) caused immense suffering and death.
• Loss of Control: While he was in the Deccan, he lost control over North India. Conversely, he could not control the Deccan from Delhi.
• Reversal: Realizing the failure, he ordered a return to Delhi, causing further hardship and resentment among the populace.

Definition: The Iqta system was a unique type of land distribution and administrative system introduced by Iltutmish.

Mechanism:

• The empire was divided into tracts of land called Iqtas.
• These were assigned to nobles/officers called Iqtadars or Muqtis.
• Duty: The Iqtadar had to collect revenue from the land, maintain a specific number of troops for the Sultan, and maintain law and order in the region.
• Surplus: After deducting their salary and army expenses, the surplus revenue (Fawazil) was to be sent to the central treasury.
• Significance: It helped in integrating the agrarian economy with the military machinery of the Sultanate.

The political structure of the Sultanate changed significantly under the Lodis due to their Afghan tribal heritage.

Turkish Theory (Ilbari/Khalji/Tughlaq):

• Absolutism: The Sultan was the supreme autocrat, often considering himself the 'Shadow of God'.
• Hierarchy: Nobles were subordinates and servants of the Crown.
• Protocol: Strict court etiquette (Sijda, Paibos) was enforced to maintain distance between the ruler and the ruled.

Afghan Theory (Lodis):

• First Among Equals: The Sultan was viewed as primus inter pares.
• Brotherhood: They believed in tribal equality. Bahlol Lodi, for instance, sat on the carpet with his nobles rather than on a throne.
• Decentralization: Power was shared among tribal chiefs, making the monarchy less absolute compared to the Turkish period.

Muhammad bin Tughlaq introduced bronze/copper coins at par with the value of silver Tanka to solve the shortage of silver.

Causes of Failure:

1. Lack of State Monopoly: The state did not take measures to prevent counterfeiting. The design was simple and easily replicable.
2. "Every house became a mint": Citizens began minting copper coins in their homes to pay taxes and buy goods.
3. Trade Collapse: Foreign merchants refused to accept the token currency, stalling international trade.
4. Financial Loss: To restore faith, the Sultan had to exchange all copper coins for silver from the treasury, draining the state's wealth.

Alauddin Khalji created the first large, permanent standing army in the Delhi Sultanate.

Key Reforms:

• Direct Recruitment: Soldiers were recruited directly by the Ariz-i-Mumalik (War Minister) and paid in cash from the royal treasury.
• Dag (Branding): He introduced the branding of horses to prevent the substitution of good horses with inferior ones.
• Chehra (Descriptive Roll): A detailed description of every soldier was maintained to prevent impersonation.
• Regular Muster: Periodic reviews of the army were conducted to ensure combat readiness.
• Fortifications: He repaired old forts and built new ones along the North-West frontier to check Mongol advancements.

As the central authority of the Delhi Sultanate weakened (post-14th century), regional Sultanates like Gujarat, Malwa, and Jaunpur emerged.

Political Structure:

• Replication of Delhi Model: Regional Sultans mostly adopted the administrative framework of Delhi, using titles like Sultan and utilizing the Iqta system.
• Autonomy: Provincial governors (Muqtis/Walis), who were once transferable agents of Delhi, declared independence and established hereditary dynasties.
• Legitimacy: They issued their own coinage (Khutba and Sikka) to assert sovereignty.
• Local Assimilation: Regional sultanates often incorporated local Hindu chieftains and cultural practices more liberally than the early central Sultanate to ensure stability.
• Conflict: There was constant warfare between these regional states (e.g., Malwa vs. Gujarat) for territorial hegemony.

Sikandar Lodi (1489–1517) is considered the ablest of the Lodi monarchs.

Achievements:

• Territorial Expansion: He annexed Jaunpur and Bihar, and extended his control over Gwalior and Dholpur.
• New Capital: He founded the city of Agra in 1504 and shifted the capital there to control the Doab and Rajputana better.
• Measurement Standard: He introduced a standard unit for measuring land called Gaz-i-Sikandari, which facilitated accurate revenue assessment.
• Justice: He was known for his strict administration of justice and law and order.
• Culture: He was a patron of learning and wrote Persian poetry under the pen name Gulrukhi.

Turkan-i-Chahalgani, or the 'Corps of Forty', was a group of elite Turkish slaves (Shamsi nobles) created by Iltutmish.

Role:

• Consolidation: Initially, they helped Iltutmish consolidate the empire and administer the Iqtas.
• Kingmakers: After Iltutmish’s death, they became powerful kingmakers, placing puppets on the throne and removing them at will (e.g., Razia Sultan).
• Destabilization: Their internal rivalries and hunger for power caused political instability during the successors of Iltutmish.
• Destruction: Their power was eventually crushed by Balban, who was originally a member of the group, to restore the authority of the monarch.

Alauddin Khalji was the first Sultan to cross the Vindhyas and invade the Deccan.

Nature of the Policy:

• Not Annexation: Unlike his policy in the North, Alauddin did not want to annex the Deccan kingdoms (Devagiri, Warangal, Dwarasamudra, Madurai) directly.
• Vassalage: He forced the rulers to accept his suzerainty and pay an annual tribute.
• Economic Motive: The primary objective was to plunder the immense wealth of the South to finance his army and administration in the North.
• Pragmatism: He realized that administering the distant South from Delhi was logistically impossible given the transport limitations of the time.

Result: Malik Kafur led successful campaigns, bringing immense wealth to Delhi, but the territories remained semi-autonomous.

Ibn Battuta, a Moroccan traveler, visited India during the reign of Muhammad bin Tughlaq and served as the Qazi of Delhi.

Significance of Rihla:

• Unbiased Account: Being a foreigner, his accounts are relatively free from the court flattery found in official chronicles.
• Personalities: He provides a vivid description of Muhammad bin Tughlaq's complex personality—his generosity, cruelty, and intellectual depth.
• Social Life: He details the postal system (Barid), the practice of Sati, slavery, and the food habits of the people.
• Administrative Insight: He describes the impact of the capital transfer to Daulatabad and the functioning of the judicial system.

The First Battle of Panipat was fought between Ibrahim Lodi and Babur.

Significance:

• End of Sultanate: It marked the end of the Lodi dynasty and the Delhi Sultanate, which had ruled for over 300 years.
• Mughal Empire: It laid the foundation of the Mughal Empire in India.
• Military Tactics: It introduced the use of gunpowder and artillery (cannons) in North Indian warfare effectively for the first time.
• Tulughma: Babur’s use of the Tulughma (flanking) tactic proved superior to the traditional Indian army structure.

Ziauddin Barani was a significant historian whose work covers the period from Balban to Firoz Shah Tughlaq.

His Perspective:

• Aristocratic Bias: He wrote from the perspective of the Turkish nobility and was highly critical of low-born Muslims or Hindus holding high office.
• Didactic History: He viewed history as a means to teach lessons to future rulers. He judged Sultans based on their adherence to Sharia and their protection of the established social order.
• Criticism: He was critical of Muhammad bin Tughlaq's rationalist policies (Maqul) and praised Firoz Shah Tughlaq’s orthodox appeasement.
• Limitation: His chronology is often defective, but his analysis of political causes and consequences is profound.

Muhammad bin Tughlaq attempted to increase revenue to fill the treasury.

Reforms in Doab:

• Tax Increase: He increased the tax rate in the fertile Doab region, theoretically justified but timed poorly during a famine.
• Diwan-i-Kohi: He established a separate department of agriculture called Diwan-i-Kohi to extend cultivation.
• Sondhar: He advanced agricultural loans (Sondhar) to peasants for digging wells and buying seeds.
• Crop Rotation: He encouraged the rotation of crops and the shift from low-value to high-value crops.

Result: The reforms largely failed due to corrupt officials, the indifference of cultivators, and the severity of the famine, leading to rebellion.

The Sultan was the head of the administration, assisted by various departments.

Key Departments:

1. Diwan-i-Wizarat: Headed by the Wazir (Prime Minister). It dealt with finance and revenue. The Wazir was the most powerful official.
2. Diwan-i-Arz: Headed by the Ariz-i-Mumalik. It was the military department responsible for recruiting and equipping the army (but not commanding it directly).
3. Diwan-i-Insha: Headed by the Dabir-i-Khas. It managed royal correspondence and state proclamations.
4. Diwan-i-Rasalat: Dealt with religious affairs and charitable grants (sometimes linked to foreign affairs).
5. Diwan-i-Qaza: Headed by the Qazi-ul-Quzat, the head of the judicial department.

While the Sultanate had been declining since the Tughlaqs, the process accelerated under the Lodis.

Causes:

• Internal Dissension: The Afghan theory of kingship led to ambitious nobles openly defying the Sultan. Ibrahim Lodi's attempt to centralize power alienated powerful Afghan chiefs like Daulat Khan Lodi and Alam Khan.
• Weak Military: The Lodi army lacked modern technology (artillery) and discipline compared to the invading Mughals.
• Lack of Succession Law: There was no fixed law of succession, leading to civil wars after the death of every Sultan.
• External Invasion: The invitation extended to Babur by disgruntled Lodi nobles proved fatal, leading to the defeat in 1526.