Unit 3: Psychological Traits

1. Self-Concept and Self-Awareness

1.1 The Nature of Self-Concept

Self-concept is the cognitive and descriptive component of the self; it is the sum of an individual's knowledge and understanding of themselves. It answers the question, "Who am I?"

• Components of Self-Concept (Carl Rogers):

  1. Self-Image: How we see ourselves physically and socially (e.g., "I am tall," "I am analytical"). This does not necessarily reflect reality.
  2. Self-Esteem (Self-Worth): The value we place on ourselves. It involves the extent to which we accept or approve of our self-image.
  3. Ideal Self: The person we would like to be. Psychological distress often arises when there is a significant mismatch (incongruence) between the self-image and the ideal self.

• Formation of Self-Concept:

  • The Looking-Glass Self (Cooley): We develop our self-concept based on how we believe others perceive us.
  • Social Comparison: Evaluating oneself in contrast to peers (upward or downward comparison).
  • Cultural Influence: Individualistic cultures foster independent self-concepts; collectivistic cultures foster interdependent self-concepts.

1.2 Self-Awareness

Self-awareness is the conscious knowledge of one’s own character, feelings, motives, and desires. It is the core component of Emotional Intelligence (EQ).

• Types of Self-Awareness:
  • Internal Self-Awareness: Understanding one's own values, passions, aspirations, and reactions.
  • External Self-Awareness: Understanding how other people view us.
• The Johari Window Model:
  A psychological tool used to improve self-awareness and mutual understanding within a group.
  • Open Area: Known to self and known to others.
  • Blind Spot: Unknown to self but known to others.
  • Hidden Area: Known to self but hidden from others.
  • Unknown Area: Unknown to self and unknown to others (unconscious).

2. Motivation Theories

Motivation refers to the internal and external factors that stimulate desire and energy in people to be continually interested and committed to a job, role, or subject, or to make an effort to attain a goal.

2.1 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Abraham Maslow proposed that humans are motivated by five distinct levels of needs, arranged in a hierarchy. Lower-level needs must be satisfied before higher-level needs become motivating.

1. Physiological Needs (Basic): Survival requirements (food, water, shelter, sleep).
   • Workplace Context: Salary, basic working conditions.
2. Safety Needs (Basic): Security, stability, freedom from fear.
   • Workplace Context: Job security, health insurance, safe work environment.
3. Belongingness and Love Needs (Psychological): Affiliation, acceptance, friendship.
   • Workplace Context: Team culture, supportive management, social interaction.
4. Esteem Needs (Psychological): Achievement, status, recognition, self-respect.
   • Workplace Context: Job titles, awards, promotions, acknowledgment of competence.
5. Self-Actualization (Self-fulfillment): Realizing personal potential, self-fulfillment, seeking personal growth.
   • Workplace Context: Challenging work, autonomy, opportunities for creativity.

Key Concept: Deficiency vs. Growth Needs

• Deficiency Needs (D-needs): The bottom four levels. Motivation decreases as these needs are met.
• Growth Needs (B-needs): Self-actualization. Motivation increases as these needs are met.

2.2 Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory (Motivation-Hygiene Theory)

Frederick Herzberg distinguished between factors that cause satisfaction and those that prevent dissatisfaction. He argued that the opposite of "satisfaction" is "no satisfaction," not dissatisfaction.

• Hygiene Factors (Maintenance Factors):
  • These are extrinsic to the work itself.
  • Examples: Company policy, supervision, salary, interpersonal relations, working conditions.
  • Impact: If absent, they cause dissatisfaction. If present, they do not motivate; they simply create a neutral state.
• Motivators (Satisfiers):
  • These are intrinsic to the job.
  • Examples: Achievement, recognition, the work itself, responsibility, advancement, growth.
  • Impact: If present, they lead to high motivation and job satisfaction. If absent, they lead to "no satisfaction" (but not necessarily dissatisfaction).

Comparison: Maslow’s lower levels correlate with Herzberg’s Hygiene factors; Maslow’s higher levels correlate with Herzberg’s Motivators.

3. Personality and Its Influence

Personality refers to individual differences in characteristic patterns of thinking, feeling, and behaving. In psychological testing, Trait Theory (specifically the Five-Factor Model or "Big Five") is the primary framework.

3.1 The Big Five Traits (OCEAN)

1. Openness to Experience: Imagination, curiosity, artistic sensitivity.
2. Conscientiousness: Organization, dependability, discipline, achievement-orientation.
3. Extraversion: Sociability, assertiveness, energy directed outward.
4. Agreeableness: Compassion, cooperativeness, trust.
5. Neuroticism (vs. Emotional Stability): Tendency toward unstable emotions (anxiety, anger, depression).

3.2 Influence on Learning

Personality traits significantly predict academic behaviors and learning styles.

• Conscientiousness: The strongest predictor of academic success.
  • Behavior: Good time management, completion of assignments, intrinsic motivation to master material.
  • Learning Style: Structured, strategic, and disciplined.
• Openness: Correlates with "Deep Learning."
  • Behavior: Intellectual curiosity, willingness to explore new concepts, critical thinking.
  • Learning Style: Prefers synthesis of ideas over rote memorization; enjoys abstract concepts.
• Extraversion:
  • Learning Style: Prefers collaborative learning, group discussions, and active experimentation. May struggle with solitary study.
• Neuroticism:
  • Impact: High anxiety can impair working memory and test performance, though mild anxiety can serve as a motivator (Eustress).

3.3 Influence on Work

Personality assessment is a staple in Industrial-Organizational (I-O) psychology for personnel selection and team building.

• Job Fit (Person-Environment Fit):
  • Extraverts: Excel in sales, leadership, and public-facing roles.
  • Introverts: Excel in analytical, technical, or detail-oriented roles requiring sustained focus.
  • High Agreeableness: Vital for service industries, nursing, and teaching; can be a liability in competitive negotiations.
• Leadership: High Extraversion and high Conscientiousness are often associated with emergent leadership. Low Neuroticism is crucial for crisis management.
• Team Dynamics:
  • Teams with a mix of traits generally outperform homogenous teams.
  • However, low Agreeableness or low Conscientiousness in a single member can create a "bottleneck" effect, reducing team performance.

4. Interpersonal Behavior and Communication

Interpersonal behavior encompasses the actions and interactions between individuals in social or organizational settings. It is the observable output of personality and social intelligence.

4.1 Foundations of Interpersonal Behavior

• Transactional Analysis (Eric Berne): A model for analyzing interactions.
  • Parent Ego State: Behaviors, thoughts, and feelings copied from parents (Controlling or Nurturing).
  • Adult Ego State: Behaviors, thoughts, and feelings which are direct responses to the here and now (Rational, Objective).
  • Child Ego State: Behaviors, thoughts, and feelings replayed from childhood (Free or Adapted).
  • Goal: Ideally, workplace communication should happen Adult-to-Adult.

4.2 Communication Styles

Psychological testing often categorizes communication into three primary styles:

1. Passive:
   • Characteristics: Avoiding conflict, submissive, prioritizing others' needs over own.
   • Non-verbal: Poor eye contact, slumped posture.
   • Outcome: Resentment build-up, lowered self-esteem.
2. Aggressive:
   • Characteristics: Dominating, hostile, violating rights of others.
   • Non-verbal: Pointing fingers, loud voice, invading space.
   • Outcome: alienation of others, fear-based compliance rather than cooperation.
3. Assertive (The Ideal):
   • Characteristics: Direct, honest, expressing needs while respecting others.
   • Non-verbal: Steady eye contact, relaxed but upright posture.
   • Outcome: Effective problem solving, mutual respect.

4.3 Barriers to Effective Interpersonal Communication

• Psychological Noise: Preconceived notions, biases, or stress that distort the message.
• Filtering: The sender manipulates information so the receiver sees it more favorably (common in upward communication in hierarchies).
• Selective Perception: The receiver interprets the message based on their own needs, motivations, and background, ignoring conflicting information.
• Emotional Disconnect: High emotion (anger or euphoria) hinders rational processing of information.

4.4 Assessing Interpersonal Competence

In psychological testing, interpersonal behavior is assessed via:

• FIRO-B (Fundamental Interpersonal Relations Orientation-Behavior): Measures needs for Inclusion, Control, and Affection.
• Situational Judgment Tests (SJTs): Presenting hypothetical conflict scenarios to assess behavioral responses.