Unit1 - Subjective Questions

The Empty Subject (also known as a dummy subject) is a pronoun used to fulfill the grammatical requirement of a subject in a sentence without carrying specific lexical meaning. In English, sentences generally require a visible subject.

1. Empty 'There'

'There' is used to indicate existence or presence. It introduces a new topic or says that something exists in a particular place.

• Usage: There + be + Noun Phrase
• Example: "There is a spider in the bath." (Not: A spider is in the bath.)

2. Empty 'It'

'It' is used to talk about time, weather, distance, or to identify/describe something.

• Time: "It is 5 o'clock."
• Weather: "It is raining outside."
• Distance: "It is five miles to the beach."
• Anticipatory Subject: "It is important to study hard."

'One' and 'ones' are used to substitute for countable nouns to avoid repetition.

Usage:

1. One: Used to replace a singular countable noun.
   • Example: "I need a pen. Do you have one?" (referring to a pen)
2. Ones: Used to replace a plural countable noun.
   • Example: "I like the red shoes, but the black ones are cheaper."

Restrictions (When NOT to use them):

• Uncountable Nouns: You cannot use 'one' or 'ones' for uncountable nouns (e.g., milk, advice).
  • Incorrect: "I need some fresh water. Can you give me one?"
  • Correct: "Can you give me some?"
• Abstract Nouns: Often avoided with abstract concepts unless defined by an adjective.

'So' is often used to substitute an entire clause (a 'that-clause') to avoid repeating the same statement. This is common in responses to questions or connected statements.

Common Usage Contexts:

1. With Verbs of Thinking/Believing:

   • Verbs: think, believe, suppose, expect, hope, imagine.
   • Example: "Will it rain today?" → "I think so." (Meaning: I think that it will rain today.)

2. With Verbs of Reporting:

   • Verbs: say, tell.
   • Example: "Is the meeting cancelled?" → "He said so."

3. Negative Formation:

   • Depending on the verb, the negative can be "I don't think so" or "I hope not."

'Do so' is a verb phrase substitute used to replace a dynamic verb and its object or complement to avoid repetition. It is generally more formal than simply using 'do' or 'did'.

Function:

It replaces a Verb Phrase (Verb + Object/Adjunct).

Examples:

• "He asked me to submit the report, and I did so immediately."
  • Here, 'did so' replaces 'submitted the report'.

Difference from 'Do':

• 'Do' (Auxiliary Ellipsis): often leaves out the main verb entirely. "She likes swimming, and I do too."
• 'Do so': specifically refers to the performance of an action mentioned previously. It acts as a pro-form for the predicate.

Ellipsis is the omission of a word or words from a sentence that are strictly grammatically required but can be recovered or understood from the context. It creates brevity and cohesion.

Main Types:

1. Nominal Ellipsis:

   • Omission of a noun or noun phrase.
   • Example: "I have three cars. Two [cars] are red."

2. Verbal Ellipsis:

   • Omission of the main verb or verb phrase.
   • Example: "She went to Paris and he [went] to London."

3. Clausal Ellipsis:

   • Omission of an entire clause.
   • Example: "Who is coming?" → "John [is coming]."

While both uses involve the pronoun 'it' appearing in the subject position, their grammatical functions differ slightly regarding what they represent.

1. Empty 'It' (Prop It)

• Function: Serves as a dummy subject for atmospheric conditions, time, or distance. It refers to nothing specific.
• Example: "It is snowing."
  • Here, 'it' does not replace a specific noun. You cannot say "The weather is snowing."

2. Anticipatory 'It'

• Function: Acts as a placeholder for a 'real' subject that has been moved to the end of the sentence (usually a to-infinitive clause or a that-clause). This is done for end-weight or emphasis.
• Example: "It is difficult to learn Chinese."
  • Analysis: The real subject is "To learn Chinese." The sentence is equivalent to: "To learn Chinese is difficult." Here, 'it' anticipates the clause coming later.

In English, when two clauses are joined by a coordinating conjunction (such as and, but, or), we often leave out (ellipt) the subject of the second clause if it is identical to the subject of the first clause.

Rules and Examples:

1. Identical Subjects:

   • If the subject is the same, omit it in the second clause.
   • Full: "She opened the door and she walked in."
   • Ellipted: "She opened the door and walked in."

2. Different Subjects:

   • If subjects differ, both must be stated.
   • Example: "She cooked dinner, but he washed the dishes."

3. Ambiguity:

   • Do not leave out the subject if it creates confusion about who performed the action.

While less common than subject ellipsis, objects can be omitted in coordinate clauses, particularly when the object is shared by two transitive verbs used in close proximity.

Usage:

1. Forward Ellipsis (Gapping):

   • Usually, the object is stated in the first clause and omitted in the second if clearly understood (though this often requires a pronoun substitution rather than pure ellipsis).
   • Example: "I washed the apples and peeled them." (Pronoun substitution is preferred over "I washed the apples and peeled.")

2. Backward Ellipsis (Right Node Raising):

   • The object appears only at the end of the second clause but applies to both verbs.
   • Example: "She loves, but he hates, football."
   • Here, 'football' is the object of both 'loves' and 'hates'.

3. Idiomatic/Fixed Phrases:

   • Some verbs allow object omission naturally.
   • Example: "They met and kissed." (Implicitly: kissed each other).

Both substitution and ellipsis are cohesive devices used to avoid repetition, but they function differently.

Substitution

• Definition: Replacing a word or phrase with a 'filler' word (pro-form) such as one, so, do, it.
• Mechanism: Something is replaced.
• Example:
  • A: "I need a pen."
  • B: "I have one." (Noun 'pen' replaced by 'one'.)

Ellipsis

• Definition: Omitting a word or phrase entirely because it is understood from the context.
• Mechanism: Something is left out (zero substitution).
• Example:
  • A: "Do you want to go to the cinema?"
  • B: "I'd love to." (Omitted: 'go to the cinema' after 'to'.)

When an infinitive verb phrase (to + verb) is repeated, we often omit the verb phrase but retain the particle 'to'. This signals that the action mentioned previously is still applicable.

Rules:

1. Retaining 'to':

   • We keep 'to' to show the infinitive structure remains.
   • Example: "I didn't want to go, but she forced me to." (Ellipted: go)

2. Verbs/Adjectives taking 'to':

   • Common with words like want, would like, used, try, able, glad.
   • Example: "Are you going to the party?" / "I hope to."

3. Exceptions (Dropping 'to'):

   • Sometimes 'to' is dropped after the verb be.
   • Example: "She is happy." (Not: She is happy to.)

When substituting a negative clause, English offers two primary structures using 'so' and 'not'.

1. I don't think so (Negative Verb + So)

• This is the most common way to form a negative opinion.
• Structure: Auxiliary 'do' + not + verb + so.
• Example: "Is he coming?" → "I don't think so."

2. I think not (Positive Verb + Not)

• This is a more formal or emphatic way of expressing negation. It uses 'not' as a substitute for the negative clause.
• Structure: Verb + not.
• Example: "Is the bank open?" → "I suspect not." (Meaning: I suspect it is not open.)

Verbs preferring 'Not':

• Hope, guess, suppose often use the 'not' substitution.
  • Correct: "I hope not."
  • Incorrect/Rare: "I don't hope so."

Situational Ellipsis (or conversational ellipsis) occurs in informal speech where words usually at the beginning of a sentence are omitted because they are obvious from the immediate situation or context.

Characteristics:

• It typically involves the omission of the subject (often 'I' or 'You') and/or the auxiliary verb.

Examples:

1. Omitting Auxiliary + Subject:

   • Full: "Do you want some coffee?"
   • Ellipted: "Want some coffee?"

2. Omitting Subject 'I':

   • Full: "I beg your pardon."
   • Ellipted: "Beg your pardon."
   • Full: "I don't know."
   • Ellipted: "Dunno."

3. Omitting Articles:

   • Full: "The postman is here."
   • Ellipted: "Postman's here."

'Do/Does/Did' act as operator substitutes. They are used to replace the whole verb phrase when responding to questions or adding coordinate clauses.

Usages:

1. Avoiding Repetition in Responses:

   • They replace the main verb to avoid repeating it.
   • Question: "Did you lock the door?"
   • Answer: "Yes, I did." (Replaces: locked the door)

2. In Comparative Clauses:

   • Example: "She plays the piano better than I do."

3. Contrast/Emphasis:

   • Example: "I didn't pass the test, but Sarah did."

This form of substitution relies on the listener knowing the antecedent verb phrase to decode the meaning of 'do'.

Analysis:

• Sentence: "I wanted some red apples, but she gave me green ones."

Identification:

• The substitution word is "ones".

Grammatical Role:

1. Nominal Substitution: 'Ones' is substituting for the plural countable noun "apples".
2. Function: It avoids the repetition of the word "apples" (i.e., "...she gave me green apples").
3. Modifier Retention: The substitution allows the adjective "green" to modify the noun substitute. We cannot simply say "she gave me green" (unless 'green' is treated as a noun), so 'ones' supports the adjective.
4. Countability: It confirms that the noun referred to is countable and plural.

Empty 'There' acts as the grammatical subject, but the logical subject (the noun following the verb) determines the number (singular/plural) of the verb 'to be'.

Agreement Rules:

1. Singular Logical Subject:

   • If the noun following the verb is singular, use is/was.
   • Example: "There is a book on the table."

2. Plural Logical Subject:

   • If the noun is plural, use are/were.
   • Example: "There are five cats in the garden."

3. List of Items:

   • If there is a list, the verb usually agrees with the first item in the list (Proximity Rule).
   • Example: "There is a pen and two pencils on the desk." (Even though the total is plural, the first item is singular).

Both expressions use the concept of 'sameness' to substitute for previously mentioned elements, but they function differently.

1. 'The Same' (Nominal/Adjectival Substitution)

• Used to substitute a noun phrase or a situation previously described.
• Example: "I'll have a coffee. Give him the same." (Replaces: a coffee)

2. 'Do the Same' (Verbal Substitution)

• Acts similarly to 'do so', replacing a specific action/verb phrase.
• Example: "He works very hard, and I try to do the same." (Replaces: work very hard)

Key Distinction:

• 'The same' usually functions as an Object (Noun Phrase substitute).
• 'Do the same' functions as a Predicate (Verb Phrase substitute).

Sentence 1

• Original: "Has she finished?" "She has."
• Type: Verbal Ellipsis (specifically leaving out words after the auxiliary).
• Full Form: "She has finished."

Sentence 2

• Original: "We went to the river and fished."
• Type: Subject Ellipsis (in a coordinate clause).
• Full Form: "We went to the river and we fished."

(Note: In sentence 1, 'She has' is an example of code usage where the auxiliary substitutes for the whole predicate, but it is often classified under ellipsis of the main verb).

Substitution and Ellipsis are critical tools in advanced communication for creating Textual Cohesion.

Role and Benefits:

1. Avoiding Redundancy: They prevent the monotonous repetition of words, phrases, or clauses, making the text more elegant.
2. Economy of Language: They allow speakers/writers to convey information more quickly and efficiently.
3. Linking Ideas: They create a grammatical link between sentences or clauses. The reader/listener must look back (anaphoric reference) to the previous text to understand the substitute or the gap.
   • Example: "I bought a car. It is red." (Link established between 'It' and 'car').
4. Flow: They improve the rhythm and flow of speech and writing.

While 'one' is often used after adjectives (e.g., "the red one"), there are specific restrictions where it cannot be used or is optional.

1. After Superlatives

• 'One' is often omitted after superlative adjectives.
• Example: "I bought the cheapest [one]." (Both valid, but omission is common).

2. Uncountable Nouns

• If the adjective modifies an uncountable noun, 'one' cannot be used.
• Example: "I like red wine better than white." (Not: white one).

3. Abstract/General Adjectives

• We rarely use 'one' after abstract adjectives referencing complex ideas.
• Example: "The social change was a rapid change." (Better than "a rapid one" in formal academic contexts depending on flow).

The choice between 'one' and 'it' depends on whether the speaker is referring to a specific instance of an object or just the type of object.

1. 'It' (Definite Reference)

• Refers to the specific, identical object mentioned before.
• Example: "I bought a guitar yesterday. It sounds amazing."
  • (Referring to the exact guitar purchased).

2. 'One' (Indefinite Reference)

• Refers to an item of the same class/type, but not the exact same physical object.
• Example: "You have a guitar. I want to buy one too."
  • (I don't want to buy your guitar; I want to buy a guitar like yours).

Summary: Use 'it' for identity of reference; use 'one' for identity of class.