Unit6 - Subjective Questions

Definition: An idiom is a phrase or expression that typically presents a figurative, non-literal meaning attached to the phrase; but some phrases become figurative idioms while retaining the literal meaning of the phrase.

Explanation of Non-literal Meaning:

• Holistic Meaning: The meaning of an idiom is established by usage and convention rather than by the definitions of the individual words.
• Example: In the phrase "Kick the bucket" (meaning to die), neither the word "kick" nor "bucket" relates literally to death.
• Context: Unlike standard sentences where , idioms function as a single semantic unit.

Definition: Collocations are words that frequently occur together more often than would be expected by chance. They sound "natural" to native speakers.

Difference:

• Strong Collocations: Words that are very closely linked and rarely appear with other words to mean the same thing.
  • Example: "Mitigating circumstances" (Strong) vs. "Alleviating circumstances" (Unnatural).
• Weak Collocations: Words that can co-occur with a wide range of other words.
  • Example: "See a movie" (Weak, as you can also see a friend, see a painting, etc.).

Concept: Formulaic expressions (or formulaic sequences) are fixed or semi-fixed phrases used for specific communicative functions, such as greetings, apologies, or signposting.

Difference from Free Combinations:

• Processing: Formulaic expressions are stored and retrieved from memory as whole chunks (e.g., "How do you do?"), whereas free combinations are constructed word-by-word using grammar rules.
• Function: They often serve a social or pragmatic purpose rather than just conveying literal information.
• Examples: "All of a sudden," "By the way," "I'm afraid that..."

1. Transparency of Meaning:

• Idioms: The meaning is opaque and non-literal. You cannot guess the meaning by analyzing the words (e.g., "Spill the beans").
• Collocations: The meaning is usually transparent and literal. The words retain their dictionary definitions (e.g., "Heavy rain" – the rain is literally heavy/intense).

2. Flexibility:

• Idioms: Highly fixed. You usually cannot change the tense or replace a word (e.g., you cannot say "Spill the peas").
• Collocations: Often allow for some variation, though specific pairings are preferred for naturalness.

1. Adjective + Noun: Words describing a specific quality of a noun.
   • Example: Excruciating pain (Not 'strong pain').
2. Verb + Noun: Specific actions taken on specific objects.
   • Example: Commit a crime (Not 'do a crime').
3. Noun + Noun: Collective nouns or quantifiers.
   • Example: A round of applause.
4. Adverb + Adjective: Modifiers emphasizing an attribute.
   • Example: Fully aware (Not 'strongly aware').
5. Verb + Preposition: Phrasal verbs or dependent prepositions.
   • Example: Rely on (Not 'rely in').

Role of Binomials:
Binomials are a specific type of idiom consisting of two words joined by a conjunction (usually 'and' or 'or'). The order of the words is fixed and cannot be reversed.

Examples:

1. Pros and Cons: Advantages and disadvantages.
2. Safe and Sound: Unharmed and healthy.
3. Sick and Tired: Thoroughly annoyed or exhausted by something.

Note: Reversing them (e.g., "Cons and Pros") sounds unnatural to native speakers.

Definition: Delexical verbs are common verbs that have very little meaning on their own when used in specific structures. The primary meaning lies in the noun that follows.

Significance:

• Collocational Drivers: They are the foundation of many verb-noun collocations.
• Examples:
  • Have: Have a drink, have a bath (The action is the drink/bath).
  • Take: Take a break, take a chance.
  • Make: Make a decision, make an effort.
  • Do: Do a favor, do business.
• Usage: Choosing the wrong delexical verb (e.g., "Make a shower" instead of "Take a shower") is a common error in communication.

Definition: A euphemism is a mild or indirect word or expression substituted for one considered to be too harsh or blunt when referring to something unpleasant or embarrassing.

Function as Idioms:

• They often function as fixed idiomatic phrases because the literal meaning disguises the actual intent.
• Social Function: They maintain politeness and soften the blow of difficult topics like death, unemployment, or bodily functions.
• Examples:
  • "Let go" instead of "Fired".
  • "Passed away" instead of "Died".
  • "Between jobs" instead of "Unemployed".

1. Naturalness: Native speakers use collocations instinctively. Using them makes speech sound authentic. E.g., saying "fast food" instead of "quick food".

2. Precision: Collocations allow for more precise expression. "Burst into tears" is more descriptive than just "started crying".

3. Cognitive Processing: The brain processes collocations as single chunks. This increases the speed of speech production and comprehension, leading to better fluency.

4. Avoiding Misunderstanding: Incorrect collocations (e.g., "Do a mistake") can distract the listener or lead to confusion.

1. Error: did a mistake

• Correction: He made a mistake.
• Explanation: 'Mistake' collocates with 'make', not 'do'.

2. Error: strong traffic

• Correction: The traffic was very heavy today.
• Explanation: Traffic is described as 'heavy', not 'strong'.

3. Error: do a photo

• Correction: Can you take a photo of us?
• Explanation: One 'takes' a photograph.

Description: Proverbs are traditional sayings or maxims that express a perceived truth based on common sense or experience. They are fixed idiomatic sentences used to give advice or comment on a situation.

Examples:

1. "Don't count your chickens before they hatch."
   • Meaning: Don't make plans based on something good happening before it actually happens.
2. "Every cloud has a silver lining."
   • Meaning: There is a positive aspect to every negative situation.

Structure: Similes as idioms typically follow the structure: (as) + Adjective + as + Noun. They compare a quality of a subject to a noun known for that quality.

Usage:

• These are used to emphasize a trait vividly.
• They are fixed expressions; you cannot usually substitute the noun.

Examples:

• "As blind as a bat" (Poor eyesight).
• "As cool as a cucumber" (Calm under pressure).
• "As light as a feather" (Very light weight).

Definition: Collocations that are appropriate for specific social contexts or levels of formality.

Formal vs. Informal:

• Formal Collocations: Used in academic, legal, or professional writing.
  • Examples: "Substantial contribution," "Mitigating factors," "Address the issue."
• Informal Collocations: Used in casual speech and daily conversation.
  • Examples: "Big help," "Let off the hook," "Talk about the problem."

Importance: Using a formal collocation in casual speech sounds pompous, while using informal ones in business reports sounds unprofessional.

Role: Signposting expressions are formulaic phrases used to guide the listener through the structure of a presentation. They act as verbal "road signs."

Functions & Examples:

1. Introducing a topic: "I’d like to begin by...", "The subject of my talk is..."
2. Sequencing: "First of all...", "Moving on to the next point..."
3. Giving examples: "To illustrate this...", "For instance..."
4. Concluding: "To sum up...", "In conclusion..."

Description: Color idioms utilize specific colors to symbolize abstract concepts, emotions, or social situations figuratively.

Examples:

1. "Green with envy"
   • Meaning: Very jealous.
2. "Out of the blue"
   • Meaning: Unexpectedly; without warning.
3. "Caught red-handed"
   • Meaning: Caught in the act of doing something wrong.

Definition: Phrasal verbs consist of a Verb + Particle (preposition/adverb), e.g., give up, run into.

Challenges:

1. Non-literal Meaning: The meaning often changes completely from the base verb. "Look after" means to care for, not to look behind.
2. Polysemy: One phrasal verb can have multiple meanings. "Take off" can mean a plane leaving the ground OR removing clothes.
3. Separability: Some phrasal verbs can be separated by the object ("Turn the light on"), while others cannot ("Run into a friend"). Knowing which is which is difficult.

Concept: These are specific adverbs used to heighten or emphasize the degree of the adjective that follows. They are often strong collocations.

Usage:

• Instead of using "very" repeatedly, speakers use intensifiers specific to the adjective.
• Examples:
  • "Highly controversial" (Not 'heavily controversial').
  • "Bitterly disappointed" (Not 'strongly disappointed').
  • "Deeply ashamed" (Not 'highly ashamed').
  • "Ridiculously cheap".

Definition: Somatic idioms are expressions that reference body parts to convey a figurative meaning. They are very common in English.

Examples:

1. "Pull someone's leg"
   • Meaning: To tease or joke with someone.
2. "Keep an eye on"
   • Meaning: To watch or monitor closely.
3. "Cold shoulder"
   • Meaning: Deliberate unfriendliness or ignoring someone.
4. "Play it by ear"
   • Meaning: To handle a situation spontaneously without a plan.

Business Collocations:

• Specific to the domain of commerce, finance, and professional interaction.
• Often involve formal register.
• Examples: "Close a deal," "Launch a product," "Market research," "Violate a contract."

General English Collocations:

• Used in everyday life and social situations.
• Can be formal or informal.
• Examples: "Make a bed," "Do homework," "Fast car," "Heavy rain."

Comparison: While general collocations are necessary for survival English, business collocations are required for professional competency and avoiding ambiguity in transactions.

1. The Lexical Approach:
Language consists of grammaticalized lexis, not lexicalized grammar. Fluency relies on retrieving pre-fabricated "chunks" of language.

2. Contextual Correctness:
Knowing the definition of "commit" and "crime" separately is less useful than knowing they belong together. Isolated words often lead to unnatural phrasing like "make a crime."

3. Cultural Literacy:
Idioms carry cultural history. Understanding "Catch-22" or "The ball is in your court" requires knowledge beyond the dictionary, facilitating deeper cultural integration.

4. Cognitive Efficiency:
Processing chunks reduces the cognitive load on the brain during speech. Instead of constructing a sentence from 10 individual words, the speaker may assemble it from 3 formulaic chunks, allowing for smoother, faster communication.

Conclusion: Mastery of chunks is the defining characteristic of Upper-Intermediate to Advanced proficiency.