Unit 4: Social welfare policies in India

Introduction to Social Welfare in India

Social welfare policies in India are deeply rooted in the Directive Principles of State Policy (DPSP) enshrined in Part IV of the Indian Constitution. These principles direct the state to ensure social, economic, and political justice, and to minimize inequalities in income, status, and opportunities. Over the last two decades, Indian public policy has witnessed a paradigm shift from a welfare/charity-based approach to a rights-based approach. This transition is evident in the legal guarantees provided for health, education, food, and employment.

1. National Health Mission (NHM)

Overview

The National Health Mission (NHM) was launched by the Government of India in 2013, subsuming two distinct sub-missions: the National Rural Health Mission (NRHM) (launched in 2005) and the National Urban Health Mission (NUHM) (launched in 2013). The primary objective of NHM is to achieve universal access to equitable, affordable, and quality healthcare services that are accountable and responsive to people's needs.

Key Objectives

• Reduction of Infant Mortality Rate (IMR) and Maternal Mortality Ratio (MMR).
• Prevention and control of communicable and non-communicable diseases.
• Population stabilization and reduction of Total Fertility Rate (TFR).
• Revitalizing local health traditions and mainstreaming AYUSH (Ayurveda, Yoga, Unani, Siddha, and Homeopathy).

Core Components and Initiatives

• ASHA (Accredited Social Health Activist): A trained female community health worker in every village who acts as an interface between the community and the public health system.
• Janani Suraksha Yojana (JSY): A safe motherhood intervention aiming to reduce maternal and neonatal mortality by promoting institutional delivery among poor pregnant women.
• Janani Shishu Suraksha Karyakaram (JSSK): Entitles all pregnant women delivering in public health institutions to absolutely free and no-expense deliveries, including Caesarean sections.
• Rogi Kalyan Samitis (Patient Welfare Committees): Registered societies that act as a group of trustees to manage the affairs of hospitals, ensuring accountability and improving facility maintenance.
• Health and Wellness Centres (HWCs): Under the Ayushman Bharat initiative, existing Sub-Centres and Primary Health Centres are being transformed into HWCs to provide Comprehensive Primary Health Care (CPHC).

Achievements

• Significant decline in MMR, IMR, and Under-5 Mortality Rate (U5MR).
• Drastic increase in institutional deliveries, largely driven by JSY and ASHA workers.
• Successful eradication of Polio and elimination of Maternal and Neonatal Tetanus.

Challenges

• Inadequate Funding: India's public health expenditure remains relatively low (around 2.1% of GDP), compared to the global average.
• Infrastructure Deficits: Severe shortages of specialists, doctors, and nurses in rural and remote Primary Health Centres (PHCs) and Community Health Centres (CHCs).
• Out-of-Pocket Expenditure (OOPE): Despite NHM, OOPE remains high due to the cost of medicines and diagnostics in the private sector.

2. Right to Education (RTE)

Overview and Constitutional Basis

The right to education was originally a Directive Principle. The 86th Constitutional Amendment Act (2002) inserted Article 21A into the Constitution, making education a Fundamental Right. Subsequently, the Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education (RTE) Act was passed in 2009 and came into effect on April 1, 2010.

Key Features of the RTE Act, 2009

• Free and Compulsory Education: Every child aged 6 to 14 years has the right to free and compulsory education in a neighborhood school till the completion of elementary education (Class 8).
• No Detention Policy (NDP): Originally, the Act mandated that no child could be held back or expelled until Class 8. (Note: The RTE Amendment Act 2019 allowed states to abolish the no-detention policy and hold regular exams in Classes 5 and 8).
• 25% Reservation: Mandates all private unaided schools to reserve 25% of their entry-level seats for children belonging to economically weaker sections (EWS) and disadvantaged groups.
• Infrastructure and Quality Norms: Defines norms for Pupil-Teacher Ratios (PTR), buildings, infrastructure, school-working days, and teacher-working hours.
• Prohibitions: Bans physical punishment, mental harassment, screening procedures for admission, capitation fees, and private tuition by school teachers.

Achievements

• Near-Universal Enrollment: Gross Enrollment Ratio (GER) at the primary level has reached nearly 100%.
• Inclusivity: Increased enrollment of girls, SC, ST, and minority students.
• Infrastructure Improvement: Significant improvement in school infrastructure, including separate toilets for girls and drinking water facilities.

Challenges and Criticisms

• Learning Outcomes: While enrollment increased, learning outcomes remained poor. Reports like ASER (Annual Status of Education Report) consistently show that a large percentage of primary students lack basic reading and arithmetic skills.
• Implementation of 25% Quota: Administrative bottlenecks, delayed reimbursements to private schools, and social integration issues have hindered the effective implementation of the EWS quota.
• Teacher Shortages and Training: A massive shortfall of professionally qualified teachers and high rates of teacher absenteeism in rural areas.

3. Right to Food Security

Overview and Context

Food security in India has evolved from the rationing systems of the 1940s to the Targeted Public Distribution System (TPDS) in 1997, and finally to a legally binding framework under the National Food Security Act (NFSA), 2013.

National Food Security Act (NFSA), 2013

The NFSA marks a paradigm shift in addressing the problem of food security—moving from a welfare approach to a rights-based approach.

Key Provisions:

• Coverage: Legally entitles up to 75% of the rural population and 50% of the urban population to receive subsidized food grains. This covers approximately 81.35 crore persons.
• Entitlements:
  • Priority Households (PHH): 5 kg of food grains per person per month.
  • Antyodaya Anna Yojana (AAY): The poorest of the poor households receive 35 kg of food grains per household per month.
• Subsidized Pricing: Food grains are provided at highly subsidized prices: Rice at ₹3/kg, Wheat at ₹2/kg, and Coarse grains at ₹1/kg (Prices under the PMGKAY have recently been made completely free for beneficiaries till 2028).
• Women's Empowerment: The eldest woman of the household (18 years or above) is designated as the head of the household for the purpose of issuing ration cards.
• Maternity Benefits: Pregnant women and lactating mothers are entitled to a nutritious "take-home ration" and a maternity benefit of at least ₹6,000 (implemented through Pradhan Mantri Matru Vandana Yojana - PMMVY).
• Children's Nutrition: Nutritional support for children aged 6 months to 14 years through the Anganwadi system (ICDS) and Mid-Day Meal Scheme (now PM POSHAN).
• Grievance Redressal: Mandates the setup of grievance redressal mechanisms at the District and State levels.

Achievements

• Provides a crucial safety net against extreme poverty and hunger, particularly evident during crises like the COVID-19 pandemic.
• Massive scale makes it the largest food security program in the world.

Challenges

• Leakages and Corruption: Inclusion errors (non-poor getting benefits) and exclusion errors (poor being left out) persist. Diversion of grains to the open market remains an issue.
• Nutritional vs. Food Security: The system heavily favors cereals (wheat and rice), neglecting pulses, edible oils, and micronutrients, leading to issues of "hidden hunger" (micronutrient deficiencies) and persistent child stunting/wasting.
• Storage and Logistics: Huge wastages occur due to inadequate storage infrastructure (godowns) under the Food Corporation of India (FCI).

4. Employment Schemes

Overview

Unemployment and underemployment are chronic issues in India, particularly in rural areas that rely heavily on seasonal agriculture. To combat this, the government has instituted various wage-employment and self-employment schemes, the most prominent being MGNREGA.

Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA), 2005

MGNREGA is a landmark legislation that guarantees the "right to work" in rural areas.

Key Features:

• Legal Guarantee: Provides a legal guarantee for at least 100 days of guaranteed wage employment in a financial year to every rural household whose adult members volunteer to do unskilled manual work.
• Time-bound Employment: Work must be provided within 15 days of demanding it; otherwise, the state must pay an unemployment allowance.
• Women's Empowerment: At least one-third (33%) of the beneficiaries must be women. The act mandates equal wages for men and women.
• Decentralized Planning: Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs) have a principal role in planning and implementation. The Gram Sabha recommends the works to be undertaken.
• Asset Creation: Focuses on creating durable assets related to water conservation, drought proofing, land development, and rural infrastructure.
• Transparency: Mandates Social Audits by the Gram Sabha to ensure accountability and prevent corruption.

Other Notable Employment and Livelihood Schemes

• Deendayal Antyodaya Yojana-National Rural Livelihoods Mission (DAY-NRLM): Focuses on self-employment and organizing rural poor women into Self Help Groups (SHGs) to build sustainable livelihoods.
• Prime Minister Employment Generation Programme (PMEGP): A credit-linked subsidy program aimed at generating self-employment opportunities through the establishment of micro-enterprises in non-farm sectors.
• Pradhan Mantri Kaushal Vikas Yojana (PMKVY): A flagship skill development scheme aiming to enable Indian youth to take up industry-relevant skill training to secure better livelihoods.

Impact of Employment Schemes

• Poverty Alleviation: MGNREGA has acted as a vital social safety net, increasing rural wage rates and reducing distress migration from rural to urban areas.
• Financial Inclusion: Mandatory payment of wages through bank/post office accounts has driven rural financial inclusion.

Challenges

• Delayed Payments: The most severe criticism of MGNREGA is the chronic delay in wage payments, which defeats the purpose of the scheme as a safety net.
• Quality of Assets: Often, the assets created under wage employment schemes are of poor quality and do not survive the monsoon season.
• Urban Employment Gap: While rural areas have a legal guarantee of work (MGNREGA), there is no equivalent national scheme for the urban poor, a vulnerability heavily exposed during the pandemic lockdowns.
• Budgetary Constraints: Funds allocated for MGNREGA are frequently exhausted before the financial year ends, leading to paused work or unpaid wages.