Unit 2: Structural and Functional Grammar

1. Grammatical Case

Case indicates the grammatical function of a noun or pronoun in a sentence. There are three primary cases in English grammar:

A. Subjective Case (Nominative)

Used when the noun or pronoun is the subject of the verb (the doer of the action).

• Pronouns: I, you, he, she, it, we, they, who.
• Example: She wrote the email. (She is the doer).

B. Objective Case (Accusative)

Used when the noun or pronoun is the object of a verb or preposition (the receiver of the action).

• Direct Object: Receives action directly. (She kicked the ball.)
• Indirect Object: Receives action indirectly. (She gave him the ball.)
• Object of Preposition: Follows a preposition. (Go with them.)
• Pronouns: Me, you, him, her, it, us, them, whom.

C. Possessive Case (Genitive)

Used to show ownership, possession, or relationship.

• Nouns: Usually formed by adding an apostrophe and s ('s) or just an apostrophe (').
  • Singular: The cat's toy.
  • Plural ending in s: The students' grades.
• Pronouns: My/Mine, your/yours, his, her/hers, its, our/ours, their/theirs, whose.
  • Note: "It's" is a contraction for "it is"; "Its" is the possessive.

2. Nouns, Pronouns, and Antecedents

Nouns

• Count vs. Non-Count Nouns: Count nouns can be enumerated (one car, two cars). Non-count nouns represent masses or abstract concepts (water, information, advice) and generally take singular verbs.
• Collective Nouns: Words like team, jury, family, committee.
  • Treat as singular when the group acts as one unit. (The jury has reached a verdict.)
  • Treat as plural when members act individually. (The jury are arguing among themselves.)

Pronouns and Antecedents

The antecedent is the noun that the pronoun replaces or refers to.

• Agreement Rule: A pronoun must agree with its antecedent in number (singular/plural), gender (male/female/neuter), and person.
  • Incorrect: Every student must submit their assignment. (Mismatch: Singular antecedent 'student' vs. plural pronoun 'their').
  • Correct (Formal): Every student must submit his or her assignment.
• Ambiguous Reference: Ensure the pronoun clearly refers to a specific noun.
  • Unclear: Jim told Mark he was mistaken. (Who was mistaken? Jim or Mark?)
  • Clear: Jim told Mark, "I am mistaken."

3. Adjectives, Adverbs, and Articles

Adjectives

Modify nouns or pronouns.

• Placement: Usually precede the noun (red car) or follow a linking verb (the car is red).
• Order of Adjectives: Opinion Size Age Shape Color Origin Material Purpose.
  • Example: A lovely small old round red French wooden sleeping bag.

Adverbs

Modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs. They answer how, when, where, or to what extent.

• Formation: Often (but not always) formed by adding -ly to adjectives (quick quickly).
• Common Confusion:
  • Good vs. Well: "Good" is an adjective (He is a good writer). "Well" is an adverb (He writes well). Note: "Well" can be an adjective when referring to health (I feel well).

Articles

• Definite Article (The): Specific, previously mentioned, or unique items (The sun, the report I sent you).
• Indefinite Articles (A/An): Non-specific items.
  • A: Used before consonant sounds (A university - starts with 'y' sound).
  • An: Used before vowel sounds (An hour - starts with 'o' sound).

4. Verbs: Agreement, Tense, Mood, and Voice

Subject-Verb Agreement

The verb must agree with the subject in number.

1. Compound Subjects: Joined by "and" usually take a plural verb. (Gold and silver are precious.)
2. Or/Nor: The verb agrees with the subject closest to it. (Neither the manager nor the employees were present. / Neither the employees nor the manager was present.)
3. Indefinite Pronouns: Words like everyone, anyone, somebody, each are singular. (Each of the books is interesting.)

Tense

Indicates the time of the action.

• Simple: Fact or habit (Past, Present, Future).
• Continuous (Progressive): Ongoing action (is writing, was writing).
• Perfect: Completed action relative to a time (has written, had written).
• Perfect Continuous: Ongoing action leading up to a specific time (has been writing).

Mood

• Indicative: Facts, opinions, questions. (He is here.)
• Imperative: Commands or requests. Subject is implied "you". (Close the door.)
• Subjunctive: Hypothetical situations, wishes, demands, or conditions contrary to fact.
  • Example: I wish I were (not "was") a bird.
  • Example: It is essential that he be (not "is") informed.

Voice

• Active Voice: The subject performs the action. Stronger and more direct.
  • Example: The committee approved the budget.
• Passive Voice: The subject receives the action. Used when the doer is unknown or less important.
  • Example: The budget was approved by the committee.

5. Structural Elements: Connecting Words, Verbals, Phrases, Clauses

Connecting Words

• Coordinating Conjunctions (FANBOYS): For, And, Nor, But, Or, Yet, So. Join equal elements.
• Subordinating Conjunctions: Because, Although, Since, While, If. Join dependent clauses to independent clauses.
• Conjunctive Adverbs: However, Therefore, Furthermore. Require a semicolon before and a comma after when joining clauses.

Verbals

Words formed from verbs but functioning as other parts of speech.

1. Gerunds: End in -ing and act as Nouns.
   • Example: Swimming is good exercise.
2. Participles:
   • Present (-ing): Acts as an adjective. (The crying baby.)
   • Past (-ed/en): Acts as an adjective. (The broken window.)
3. Infinitives: To + Verb base. Can act as noun, adjective, or adverb.
   • Example: To err is human.

Phrases vs. Clauses

• Phrase: A group of words lacking a subject-verb unit (e.g., in the morning, running fast).
• Clause: A group of words containing a subject and a verb.
  • Independent Clause: Can stand alone as a sentence. (She ran.)
  • Dependent (Subordinate) Clause: Cannot stand alone. (Because she ran...)

6. Modifiers

Modifiers are words, phrases, or clauses that provide description to other words.

• Rule of Proximity: Keep modifiers as close as possible to the words they modify to avoid confusion.
• Limiting Modifiers: Words like only, almost, just, nearly.
  • Meaning shift:
    • "He only ate the steak." (He didn't eat the potatoes).
    • "He ate only the steak." (He ate nothing else).
    • "Only he ate the steak." (No one else ate it).

7. Sentence Structure

Basic Patterns

1. Subject + Verb (SV): Birds fly.
2. Subject + Verb + Object (SVO): Cats chase mice.
3. Subject + Verb + Complement (SVC): He is a doctor.

Sentence Classifications

1. Simple Sentence: One independent clause.
   • The project failed.
2. Compound Sentence: Two independent clauses joined by a conjunction or semicolon.
   • The project failed, but we learned a lot.
3. Complex Sentence: One independent clause + one or more dependent clauses.
   • Although the project failed, we learned a lot.
4. Compound-Complex Sentence: Two independent clauses + one or more dependent clauses.
   • Although the project failed, we learned a lot, and we will try again.

8. Writing Effective Sentences

To communicate clearly, sentences must possess:

• Unity: Contains one main idea. Avoid overloading a sentence with unrelated thoughts.
• Coherence: Logical flow. Use transitional words (therefore, however) and correct syntax.
• Emphasis: Place the most important words at the beginning or (more strongly) at the end of the sentence.
  • Weak: The building collapsed suddenly.
  • Strong: Suddenly, the building collapsed.
• Conciseness: Remove "dead wood" (unnecessary words).
  • Wordy: Due to the fact that...
  • Concise: Because...

9. Basic Sentence Faults

A. Sentence Fragments

An incomplete sentence treated as a complete one. Usually lacks a subject, a verb, or is a dependent clause left alone.

• Fault: Because the data was lost.
• Correction: The report was delayed because the data was lost.

B. Run-on Sentences (Fused Sentences)

Two independent clauses joined with no punctuation.

• Fault: The meeting is over everyone went home.
• Correction: The meeting is over. Everyone went home.

C. Comma Splices

Two independent clauses joined only by a comma (requires a conjunction or semicolon).

• Fault: He is smart, he studies hard.
• Correction: He is smart, and he studies hard. / He is smart; he studies hard.

D. Dangling Modifiers

A modifier that doesn't logically attach to any word in the sentence.

• Fault: Walking down the street, the trees looked beautiful. (Implies the trees were walking).
• Correction: Walking down the street, I thought the trees looked beautiful.

E. Misplaced Modifiers

A modifier placed too far from the word it describes.

• Fault: She served sandwiches to the children on paper plates. (Implies the children were on plates).
• Correction: She served sandwiches on paper plates to the children.

F. Faulty Parallelism

Items in a list or comparison must share the same grammatical form.

• Fault: He likes running, swimming, and to hike.
• Correction: He likes running, swimming, and hiking.