Unit 5: Perspectives on Happiness and Well Being

1. Introduction to Happiness and Well-Being

In Positive Psychology, happiness is scientifically referred to as Subjective Well-Being (SWB). It is generally conceptualized as consisting of three distinct components:

1. High frequency of positive affect (pleasant emotions).
2. Low frequency of negative affect (unpleasant emotions).
3. High cognitive life satisfaction (a global evaluation of one's life).

Two Major Perspectives

• Hedonic Perspective: Equates happiness with the attainment of pleasure and avoidance of pain. It focuses on "feeling good."
• Eudaimonic Perspective: Equates happiness with meaning, self-realization, and fully functioning. It focuses on "functioning well" (e.g., Self-Determination Theory).

2. Theories of Happiness

Scholars have proposed various theoretical frameworks to explain why some people are happier than others and how happiness functions.

A. Need/Goal Satisfaction Theories

• Premise: Happiness results from the satisfaction of needs and the achievement of goals.
• Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory: Happiness is the reduction of tension (satisfying biological drives).
• Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs: Happiness is achieved by ascending the hierarchy from basic physiological needs to self-actualization.
• Self-Determination Theory (Ryan & Deci): Well-being depends on the satisfaction of three innate psychological needs:
  • Autonomy: Feeling in control of one's actions.
  • Competence: Feeling capable and effective.
  • Relatedness: Feeling connected to others.

B. Process/Activity Theories

• Premise: Happiness is produced by engaging in certain activities rather than achieving a final state.
• Flow (Csikszentmihalyi): Happiness occurs during complete absorption in an activity where skill level matches the challenge level.
• Activity Theory: Engaging in intentional, effortful activities (hobbies, social interaction) generates sustainable happiness more than changing life circumstances.

C. Genetic and Personality Theories

• Set-Point Theory (Brickman & Campbell):
  • Individuals have a genetic baseline ("set-point") for happiness.
  • Major life events (winning the lottery, becoming paralyzed) deflect happiness temporarily, but individuals eventually return to their baseline.
  • This phenomenon is known as the Hedonic Treadmill.
• Trait Theory: Happiness is stable because it is linked to stable personality traits.
  • Extraversion: Highly correlated with positive affect.
  • Neuroticism: Highly correlated with negative affect.

D. The Broaden-and-Build Theory (Fredrickson)

• Unlike negative emotions which narrow focus (fight or flight), positive emotions broaden an individual's momentary thought-action repertoire (e.g., playing, exploring).
• This broadening helps build enduring personal resources (physical, intellectual, social, and psychological) that function as reserves for future well-being.

3. Causes of Happiness (Determinants)

Sonja Lyubomirsky proposed a widely cited model regarding the determinants of chronic happiness levels.

The "Happiness Pie" Chart

1. Genetics (Set Point): ~50%
   • Biological predisposition to happiness.
   • Explains why happiness levels remain relatively stable over time despite changes in life.
2. Life Circumstances: ~10%
   • Includes demographics, income, marital status, health, and geography.
   • Surprisingly low impact due to hedonic adaptation (people get used to their circumstances quickly).
3. Intentional Activity: ~40%
   • The specific things people do and how they think.
   • This is the most critical area for psychological intervention because it is under the individual's control.
   • Examples: Practicing gratitude, physical exercise, acts of kindness, reframing negative thoughts.

Top-Down vs. Bottom-Up Processing

• Bottom-Up: Happiness is a summation of many small positive experiences and external events. (I am happy because X, Y, and Z happened to me).
• Top-Down: Happiness is determined by internal perspective and personality interpretation. (I view the world positively, therefore X, Y, and Z make me happy).

4. Measures and Correlates of Happiness

Researchers distinguish between factors that are merely associated with happiness (correlates) and those that do not predict it.

A. Zero to Weak Correlates (What DOESN'T buy happiness)

• Age: Happiness is unrelated to age (though some studies suggest a "U-bend" where happiness is high in youth and old age, dipping in mid-life).
• Gender: Men and women report roughly equal levels of global happiness, though women may report higher highs and lower lows.
• Intelligence/Education: IQ has little to no correlation with SWB.
• Physical Attractiveness: No significant link.
• Money (The Easterlin Paradox):
  • Once basic needs (food, shelter, safety) are met, increased wealth yields diminishing returns on happiness.
  • Wealthier nations are happier than poor nations, but within a wealthy nation, earning more money has a negligible effect on happiness.

B. Moderate Correlates

• Health: Subjective health (how healthy you feel) is more strongly correlated than objective health (medical stats).
• Social Activity: Having a social network correlates with happiness.
• Religiosity: Religious people report slightly higher levels of happiness, attributed to social support and a sense of meaning.

C. Strong Correlates (The strongest predictors)

• Genetics/Personality: Low Neuroticism and High Extraversion.
• Marriage/Relationships: People in good relationships/marriages are happier than singles (though the direction of causality is debated—happy people may be more likely to get married).
• Job Satisfaction: Liking what you do is strongly linked to life satisfaction.
• Gratitude and Optimism: Cognitive styles that focus on the positive.

5. The Effects of Happiness on Well-Being

Happiness is not just a result of good outcomes; it is a cause of good outcomes.

A. Physical Health

• Longevity: The "Nun Study" (Danner et al.) showed that nuns who expressed more positive emotions in early autobiographies lived significantly longer (up to 10 years) than those with fewer positive emotions.
• Immunity: Happier people show stronger immune responses to viruses.
• Pain Tolerance: Positive affect is associated with higher pain thresholds.

B. Social Outcomes

• Altruism: Happier people are more likely to help others (the "feel-good, do-good" phenomenon).
• Relationships: Happy people have higher quality marriages, more friends, and stronger social support networks. They are viewed as more attractive and competent.

C. Cognitive and Work Outcomes

• Productivity: Happy workers are more productive, take fewer sick days, and earn higher incomes.
• Creativity: Positive affect facilitates flexible thinking and problem-solving (Isen’s research).
• Decision Making: Happier individuals make decisions faster and more efficiently.

D. Psychological Resilience

• Undoing Hypothesis: Positive emotions "undo" the lingering cardiovascular effects of negative emotions, helping the body return to baseline faster after stress.

6. Measuring Happiness

Since happiness is subjective, it is primarily measured through self-report, though objective measures exist.

A. Self-Report Scales

These rely on the honesty and introspective ability of the participant.

1. Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS) - Diener:
   • A 5-item scale measuring the cognitive component of SWB (e.g., "In most ways my life is close to my ideal").
2. Subjective Happiness Scale (SHS) - Lyubomirsky:
   • A 4-item global assessment of whether one is a happy or unhappy person relative to peers.
3. Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS):
   • Measures the emotional component. Participants rate the extent to which they have felt 10 positive emotions (e.g., excited, inspired) and 10 negative emotions (e.g., guilty, jittery) over a specific time.
4. Oxford Happiness Inventory:
   • A broader measure that includes aspects of self-esteem, sense of purpose, and social interest.

B. Experience Sampling Method (ESM)

• Participants carry a device (or use a smartphone app) that prompts them at random intervals to record their current activity and mood.
• Advantage: Reduces memory bias (recalling past happiness is often inaccurate).
• Disadvantage: Intrusive and labor-intensive.

C. Day Reconstruction Method (DRM)

• Participants write a diary of the previous day, breaking it into episodes, and rate the emotions felt during each episode.
• A hybrid between global self-reports and ESM.

D. Physiological Measures

• Brain Imaging (fMRI/EEG):
  • Happiness is associated with greater activity in the left prefrontal cortex.
  • Sadness/anxiety is associated with greater activity in the right prefrontal cortex.
• Cortisol Levels: Happier individuals tend to have lower levels of the stress hormone cortisol.