Unit 1: Sources of Ancient History

1. Introduction

Reconstructing Ancient Indian history is a complex task that relies on the interpretation of various evidences left behind by our ancestors. Unlike modern history, where archival records are abundant, ancient history relies heavily on a mix of material remains and literary texts.

2. Classification of Sources

Historical sources are broadly classified into two categories based on their origin and proximity to the event.

A. Primary Sources

Primary sources are original materials that provide direct evidence about the past. They are contemporary to the period being studied.

• Examples: Archaeological artifacts (pottery, tools), inscriptions (edicts), coins, monuments, and contemporary literature (e.g., Arthashastra for the Mauryan period).
• Significance: These form the raw data of history and are considered the most reliable evidence, though they require interpretation.

B. Secondary Sources

Secondary sources are interpretations, analyses, or syntheses of primary sources created by scholars after the fact.

• Examples: Modern history textbooks, academic journal articles, and biographies written centuries after the subject's death.
• Significance: They help provide context and narrative structure to the raw data provided by primary sources.

3. Literature: Indigenous Sources

Literary sources are written records. In the Indian context, they were often transmitted orally before being written down. They are categorized into Religious and Secular literature.

A. Religious Literature

Religion was a dominant force in ancient India; thus, a vast amount of literature is religious in nature.

1. Vedic/Hindu Literature

• The Vedas: The four Vedas (Rig, Sama, Yajur, Atharva) are the earliest sources. The Rig Veda provides details on the Early Vedic polity, society, and geography (Sapta Sindhu). Later Vedas describe the transition to the Iron Age and the caste system.
• The Brahmanas & Aranyakas: Commentary texts explaining Vedic rituals and philosophy.
• The Upanishads: Philosophical texts focusing on the soul (Atman) and absolute reality (Brahman).
• The Epics (Ramayana & Mahabharata): Provide insights into the social structure, morality (Dharma), and political conflicts of the later Vedic and post-Vedic periods.
• The Puranas: There are 18 Mahapuranas. They contain genealogies (Vamshanucharita) of kings, mythology, and geography. Though filled with myths, they provide a chronological framework for dynasties like the Haryankas, Shishunagas, and Nandas.

2. Buddhist Literature

• Tripitakas (Three Baskets): Written in Pali.
  • Sutta Pitaka: Teachings of Buddha.
  • Vinaya Pitaka: Rules for the monastic order (Sangha).
  • Abhidhamma Pitaka: Philosophical analysis.
• Jatakas: Stories of Buddha’s previous births. They are invaluable for understanding the socio-economic conditions of common people (farmers, traders) rather than just kings.
• Deepavamsa & Mahavamsa: Sri Lankan chronicles that help reconstruct the history of Ashoka and the spread of Buddhism.

3. Jain Literature

• Agamas/Angas: Written in Prakrit (Ardha-Magadhi). They provide details on the life of Mahavira and trade activities in Eastern India.

B. Secular Literature

This includes law books, scientific treatises, dramas, and biographies.

1. Dharmashastras (Law Books)

• Manusmriti: Lays down social norms, duties of the king, and civil/criminal laws.
• Arthashastra: Written by Kautilya (Chanakya). It is a treatise on statecraft, economic policy, and military strategy, offering a detailed view of the Mauryan administration.

2. Creative Literature (Kavya & Drama)

• Kalidasa: Works like Abhijnana Shakuntalam and Raghuvamsa reflect the cultural zenith of the Gupta period.
• Sangam Literature: The earliest literature of South India (Tamil). It provides detailed accounts of the Chera, Chola, and Pandya kingdoms, and outlines the "Tinai" concept (eco-zones).

3. Historical Biographies (Charitas)

• Harshacharita: Written by Banabhatta. A biography of King Harsha, providing insights into his court and administration.
• Rajatarangini: Written by Kalhana (12th Century CE). It is a history of Kashmir and is considered the first true historical text of India due to its objective style and use of multiple sources.

4. Scientific Literature

• Aryabhatiya (Aryabhata): Mathematics and Astronomy.
• Charaka Samhita & Sushruta Samhita: Medicine and Surgery.

4. Literature: Foreign Accounts

Foreign travelers visited India as pilgrims, ambassadors, or traders. Their accounts provide an outsider's perspective, often recording observations that indigenous writers took for granted.

A. Greek and Roman Accounts

• Megasthenes: The Greek ambassador to Chandragupta Maurya. His book Indica (surviving only in fragments cited by later writers) describes the Mauryan capital Pataliputra, the 7-caste system (a misunderstanding of Varna), and the absence of slavery.
• Periplus of the Erythraean Sea: An anonymous Greek sailor's guide describing Roman trade with India, listing ports like Muziris and Bharuch.
• Ptolemy: Wrote Geography, detailing the map of ancient India.

B. Chinese Accounts

Chinese pilgrims visited India primarily to study Buddhism and collect manuscripts.

• Fa-Hien (Faxian): Visited during the reign of Chandragupta II (Gupta Empire). He described the peace and prosperity of the land and the mildness of the criminal justice system.
• Hiuen Tsang (Xuanzang): Visited during the reign of Harshavardhana. He studied at Nalanda University and provided detailed accounts of the educational system, the religious assemblies at Prayag, and the decline of urban centers like Pataliputra.

C. Arab Accounts

• Al-Biruni: Accompanied Mahmud of Ghazni. His book Tahqiq-i-Hind (Kitab-ul-Hind) is a scientific treatise on Indian astronomy, mathematics, social customs, and religion in the 11th century.

5. Archaeology

Archaeology is the scientific study of material remains of past human life and activities.

Key Aspects

• Excavations: Digging of mounds (Tell) to reveal vertical (chronological) or horizontal (period-specific) history.
  • Example: Excavations at Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa revealed the Indus Valley Civilization.
• Pre-history: For periods with no written records (Paleolithic, Mesolithic, Neolithic), archaeology is the only source.
• Dating Methods:
  • Radiocarbon Dating (C14): Used for organic materials (bones, wood) to determine age.
  • Stratigraphy: Determining age based on the layer of earth in which an artifact is found.
• Ceramics/Pottery: Pottery styles help identify cultures.
  • PGW (Painted Grey Ware): Associated with the later Vedic period.
  • NBPW (Northern Black Polished Ware): Associated with the Mauryan period and urbanization.
• Monuments: Temples, Stupas, and Palaces reveal architectural skill, religious beliefs, and economic resources.
  • Stupas: Sanchi and Bharhut (Buddhist architecture).
  • Temples: Dashavatara Temple (Gupta architecture).

6. Epigraphy

Epigraphy is the study of inscriptions. Inscriptions are writings engraved on hard surfaces like stone, metal, or terracotta.

Significance

• Durability: Unlike manuscripts (palm leaves) which rot, inscriptions are permanent and usually not tampered with later.
• Chronology: They often contain dates, helping to fix the timeline of kings.

Classification of Inscriptions

1. Royal Edicts: Commands issued by kings.
   • Ashokan Edicts: The oldest deciphered inscriptions. Written in Brahmi, Kharosthi, Greek, and Aramaic. They discuss Dhamma, administration, and welfare.
2. Prashastis (Eulogies): Written by court poets in praise of kings.
   • Allahabad Pillar Inscription (Prayag Prashasti): Composed by Harisena in Sanskrit. It details the military conquests of Samudragupta.
   • Aihole Inscription: Details the victory of Pulakeshin II over Harsha.
3. Donative Inscriptions: Records of land grants (Agrahara) or gifts to temples/Brahmins.
   • Copper Plates (Tamrapatra): These served as legal land titles detailing the genealogy of the donor and the rights of the donee.

Scripts

• Brahmi: The mother of most Indian scripts; written left to right. Deciphered by James Prinsep in 1837.
• Kharosthi: Written right to left; prevalent in Northwest India.

7. Numismatics

Numismatics is the study of coins. Coins are crucial for understanding economic history, extent of empires, and trade relations.

Evolution and Significance

• Punch-Marked Coins: The earliest coins (6th Century BCE). Made of silver/copper with symbols punched on them. They usually do not carry names of kings.
• Indo-Greek Coins: The Indo-Greeks (2nd Century BCE) were the first to issue gold coins in India and the first to feature portraits of kings and their names. This helps construct the dynastic history of the region.
• Kushana Coins: Issued large quantities of gold coins, indicating the prosperity of the Silk Road trade.
• Gupta Coins: Represent the zenith of Indian numismatics.
  • Known for high purity of gold.
  • Depicted kings in various activities (playing the Veena, hunting lions, performing Ashvamedha sacrifice), revealing personal hobbies and religious inclinations.
  • Decline in the purity of gold in later Gupta coins indicates economic decline.
• Satavahana Coins: Mostly made of lead, potin, and copper, indicating a specific regional economy in the Deccan.

Information Derived from Coins

1. Economic Condition: Purity of metal indicates prosperity.
2. Territorial Extent: The finding spots (hoards) of coins suggest the area of circulation.
3. Metallurgy: Reveals the scientific knowledge of metal casting.
4. Chronology: Dates on coins help fix timelines.
5. Religion: Deities depicted on coins (e.g., Shiva on Kushana coins, Garuda on Gupta coins) show royal religious patronage.