Unit 1: Key terms pertaining to short story

1. The Short Story as a Literary Genre

Definition and Scope

The short story is a piece of prose fiction that can typically be read in one sitting. Unlike the novel, which can encompass vast periods of time, multitudes of characters, and complex sub-plots, the short story usually focuses on a self-contained incident or series of linked incidents, with the intent of evoking a single effect or mood.

Edgar Allan Poe’s Definition: In his review of Nathaniel Hawthorne’s Twice-Told Tales (1842), Poe famously defined the short story by its "unity of effect." He argued that a writer should conceive a specific emotional impact and construct every sentence to contribute to that pre-established design.

Key Characteristics

• Economy of Language: Every word is essential. Descriptions are often concise, and dialogue is purposeful. There is little room for digression.
• limited Characterization: Short stories rarely feature more than one or two main characters. Character development often occurs through "showing" rather than extensive backstory.
• Compressed Time and Space: The narrative often spans a short period (hours or days) and is confined to limited settings to maintain focus.
• In Media Res: Stories often begin "in the middle of things," without a lengthy introduction or exposition.
• The Epiphany: Popularized by James Joyce, this refers to a moment of sudden revelation or insight experienced by the protagonist that alters their understanding of the world.

Evolution of the Genre

1. Pre-Modern: Roots in oral tradition, fables, parables, and fairy tales (focus on moral instruction).
2. 19th Century: Formalization by Poe, Hawthorne, Maupassant, and Chekhov. Chekhov introduced the "slice of life" technique, moving away from plot-heavy twist endings toward psychological realism.
3. Modern/Contemporary: Experimentation with form, fragmentation, magical realism, and minimalism (e.g., Raymond Carver, Alice Munro, George Saunders).

2. Fiction vs. Non-Fiction

Understanding the distinction between these two modes is essential for analyzing the "truth" presented in a short story.

Fiction

Fiction is narrative writing drawn from the imagination of the author rather than from history or fact.

• Suspension of Disbelief: The reader agrees to accept the premise of the story as reality for the duration of the reading.
• Verisimilitude: Even though the story is invented, good fiction strives for the appearance of truth. Characters act in psychologically plausible ways, and the logic of the story’s world remains consistent.
• Plot vs. Story:
  • Story: The chronological sequence of events (A happened, then B, then C).
  • Plot: The causal and dramatic structure of those events (A caused B, which led to C).

Non-Fiction

Non-fiction is prose writing that is based on facts, real events, and real people, such as biography or history.

• Objectivity vs. Subjectivity: While non-fiction relies on facts, literary non-fiction (memoirs, personal essays) often employs the subjective voice and narrative techniques of fiction.

The Blur: Creative Non-Fiction and Autofiction

In contemporary literature, the line is often blurred.

• Autofiction: A genre where the author appears as a character, mixing autobiography with fictional elements.
• Relevance to Short Story: Many contemporary short stories borrow the texture of non-fiction (using documents, footnotes, or a journalistic tone) to enhance realism.

3. Style and Technique

Style is the distinctive manner in which a writer arranges words to achieve particular effects. Technique refers to the specific tools and methods used to construct the narrative.

Elements of Style

• Diction: The choice of words.
  • High/Formal: Complex vocabulary, lack of contractions.
  • Low/Informal: Slang, dialect, colloquialisms.
  • Concrete vs. Abstract: Specific physical descriptions vs. conceptual ideas.
• Syntax: The sentence structure.
  • Short, punchy sentences (e.g., Hemingway) create tension or urgency.
  • Long, labyrinthine sentences (e.g., Faulkner) suggest complexity, confusion, or stream of consciousness.
• Tone: The author’s attitude toward the subject or audience (e.g., ironic, cynical, nostalgic, detached).
• Voice: The unique "sound" of the narrator or character. It is the combination of diction, syntax, and personality.

Narrative Techniques

• Point of View (POV): The lens through which the story is told.
  • First Person ("I"): Intimate, subjective, potentially unreliable.
  • Second Person ("You"): Rare, immersive, accusatory.
  • Third Person Limited: Narrative voice adheres to one character’s perspective but uses "he/she."
  • Third Person Omniscient: God-like perspective; knows the thoughts of all characters.
• Stream of Consciousness: A method that attempts to depict the multitudinous thoughts and feelings which pass through the mind of a narrator (associative rather than linear).
• Foreshadowing: Subtle hints dropped early in the story about plot developments that will occur later.
• Flashback: Interrupting the chronological flow to depict events from the past, providing context or motivation.
• Irony:
  • Verbal Irony: Saying one thing but meaning another.
  • Situational Irony: The outcome is the opposite of what was expected.
  • Dramatic Irony: The reader knows something the character does not.

4. Symbolism and Imagery

Because short stories are compressed, writers rely heavily on symbolism and imagery to convey complex themes without lengthy explanation.

Imagery

Imagery involves the use of figurative language to represent objects, actions, and ideas in such a way that it appeals to our physical senses. It creates a mental picture (the "show, don't tell" principle).

• Visual Imagery: Sight (colors, shapes, light).
• Auditory Imagery: Sound (noise, music, silence).
• Olfactory Imagery: Smell (fragrance, rot).
• Gustatory Imagery: Taste (sweet, metallic).
• Tactile Imagery: Touch (texture, temperature).
• Kinesthetic Imagery: Movement (running, flying, falling).

Function of Imagery: To establish Mood (the emotional atmosphere of the story) and to ground the reader in the physical reality of the narrative.

Symbolism

A symbol is a person, object, action, place, or event that, in addition to its literal meaning, suggests a more complex meaning or range of meanings.

• Literal vs. Figurative: A rose is literally a flower. Symbolically, it may represent love, beauty, or transience.
• Types of Symbols:
  1. Conventional/Universal Symbols: Meanings widely recognized by a society or culture (e.g., a dove representing peace; winter representing death/old age).
  2. Private/Contextual Symbols: Symbols created by the author within the specific context of the story. Their meaning is defined by how they are used in the narrative. (e.g., a specific cracked teacup in a story might represent a broken marriage).
• Motif: A recurring image, word, phrase, or action that tends to unify the literary work or that may be elaborated into a theme. While a symbol might appear once, a motif repeats.

The Role of Symbolism in Short Stories:
Since a short story lacks the space to explicitly debate philosophical concepts, symbols act as "shorthand." A single object can carry the thematic weight of the entire story. For example, in Hemingway’s Hills Like White Elephants, the landscape (barren on one side, fertile on the other) symbolizes the choice the couple faces regarding abortion and their future.