Unit 2: Theories of Personality and Self

1. Trait and Type Theories of Personality

Personality theories are frameworks used to describe and explain the origins and nature of individual differences in behavior. They are broadly categorized into Type Theories (classifying people into distinct categories) and Trait Theories (viewing personality as a combination of continuous dimensions).

A. Type Theories

Type theories suggest that there are a limited number of distinct personality "types." An individual belongs to one category or another, with little graduation between them.

1. Hippocrates and Galen (The Four Humors)
Based on bodily fluids, this ancient theory linked temperament to physiology:

• Sanguine (Blood): Cheerful, active, optimistic.
• Phlegmatic (Phlegm): Calm, sluggish, unemotional.
• Melancholic (Black Bile): Sad, depressed, brooding.
• Choleric (Yellow Bile): Irritable, short-tempered, aggressive.

2. William Sheldon (Somatotypes)
Sheldon correlated body build (somatotype) with personality temperament:

• Endomorphs (Round/Soft): Relaxed, sociable, fond of eating (Viscerotonia).
• Mesomorphs (Muscular/Hard): Energetic, courageous, assertive (Somatotonia).
• Ectomorphs (Thin/Fragile): Brainy, artistic, introverted, anxious (Cerebrotonia).

B. Trait Theories

Trait theories assume that personality consists of a set of traits (stable characteristics) that cause individuals to behave in certain ways. Traits are continuous dimensions (e.g., a person is not just "friendly" or "unfriendly," but falls somewhere on a scale of friendliness).

1. Gordon Allport’s Trait Hierarchy
Allport categorized traits based on their dominance in an individual’s life:

• Cardinal Traits: The single dominant characteristic that directs most of a person's activities (e.g., "Machiavellian" or "Christ-like"). Not everyone possesses these.
• Central Traits: The major characteristics of an individual (e.g., honest, shy). Most people have 5–10 of these.
• Secondary Traits: Characteristics that affect behavior in fewer situations (e.g., preferences for clothing or food).

2. Raymond Cattell (16PF)
Using factor analysis, Cattell identified distinct personality dimensions:

• Surface Traits: Observable qualities (e.g., acting happy).
• Source Traits: Underlying structures that cause surface traits. He identified 16 Source Traits (e.g., Reserved vs. Warm, Submissive vs. Dominant).

3. Hans Eysenck (PEN Model)
Eysenck proposed three biological dimensions:

• Psychoticism: Aggression, impulsivity, lack of empathy.
• Extraversion: Sociability, liveliness (vs. Introversion).
• Neuroticism: Emotional instability, anxiety (vs. Emotional Stability).

4. The Big Five (Five-Factor Model)
Currently the most accepted trait theory (Acronym: OCEAN):

1. Openness to Experience: Creativity, curiosity, preference for novelty.
2. Conscientiousness: Organization, dependability, discipline.
3. Extraversion: Outgoingness, energy, sociability.
4. Agreeableness: Compassion, cooperativeness, trust.
5. Neuroticism: Tendency toward unstable emotions (anxiety, sadness).

2. Humanistic Approach to Personality

The Humanistic perspective arose in the mid-20th century as the "Third Force" in psychology (after Psychoanalysis and Behaviorism). It emphasizes personal growth, free will, self-determination, and the inherent goodness of people.

Key Concepts

• Subjective Experience: Focuses on the individual’s private view of the world (phenomenology).
• Self-Actualization: The innate drive to grow and reach one's full potential.
• Here and Now: Emphasis on the present rather than past trauma.

Carl Rogers: Self Theory

Rogers believed humans are rational and driven to achieve their potential. His theory focuses on the Self-Concept (the image we have of ourselves).

• The Organism: The whole person, constantly striving for actualization.
• The Self: A part of the phenomenal field that is recognized as "I" or "Me."
• Congruence vs. Incongruence:
  • Congruence: When the Real Self (who you are) aligns with the Ideal Self (who you want to be). This leads to a fully functioning person.
  • Incongruence: A discrepancy between the Real and Ideal Self, leading to anxiety and defensive behaviors.
• Conditions of Worth: Expecting affection only when behaving in certain ways.
• Unconditional Positive Regard: Accepting and loving a person regardless of their behavior. Rogers viewed this as essential for healthy personality development.

3. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs and Self-Actualization

Abraham Maslow organized human needs into a hierarchy, suggesting that basic needs must be met before higher-level growth needs can be addressed.

The Hierarchy Pyramid (Bottom-Up)

1. Physiological Needs: Basic survival requirements (food, water, sleep, homeostasis).
2. Safety Needs: Security, stability, protection from harm, financial security.
3. Love and Belonging Needs: Friendship, intimacy, family, sense of connection.
4. Esteem Needs:
   • Lower form: Respect from others (status, recognition).
   • Higher form: Self-respect (confidence, mastery, independence).
5. Self-Actualization: The realization of one’s potential.

Self-Actualization (The Peak)

Self-actualization is the desire for self-fulfillment—to become everything that one is capable of becoming. Maslow estimated only about 1-2% of the population achieves this fully.

Characteristics of Self-Actualized People:

• Efficient Perception of Reality: They judge situations correctly and honestly; they are not threatened by the unknown.
• Acceptance: They accept themselves, others, and nature without shame or guilt.
• Spontaneity and Simplicity: They are true to themselves rather than conforming to social expectations.
• Problem-Centered: They focus on problems outside themselves (causes/missions) rather than being ego-centered.
• Autonomy: They are independent of culture and environment; they rely on their own potential.
• Peak Experiences: Profound moments of love, understanding, happiness, or rapture during which a person feels more whole, alive, and self-sufficient.

4. Shaping and Development of Personality

Personality development is the result of the interaction between Nature (biology/genetics) and Nurture (environment/experience).

A. Biological Determinants (Heredity)

• Genetics: Twin studies show that traits like Introversion/Extraversion and Neuroticism have strong genetic components (approx. 40–50% heritability).
• Brain Structure: Activity in the amygdala is linked to inhibition; dopamine levels correlate with exploration.
• Physical Features: Height, appearance, and physical abilities can influence self-concept and how others treat the individual.

B. Environmental Determinants

• Family Environment: The primary socialization unit. Parenting styles (Authoritative, Authoritarian, Permissive) significantly shape personality.
• School and Peer Groups: Socialization expands beyond the family; peer acceptance and academic success impact self-esteem and social traits.
• Culture:
  • Individualistic Cultures (Western): Promote independence, competition, and personal achievement.
  • Collectivist Cultures (Eastern): Promote cooperation, social harmony, and group identity.

C. Situational Determinants

Personality is not perfectly stable; it adapts to situations.

• Trauma: Major negative events can alter personality (e.g., increasing neuroticism).
• Life Transitions: Marriage, parenthood, or new careers often increase Conscientiousness and Agreeableness.

5. Myers–Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)

The MBTI is a self-report questionnaire designed to indicate psychological preferences in how people perceive the world and make decisions. It is based on the conceptual theory of Carl Jung.

The Four Dichotomies

The MBTI sorts individuals into one of 16 types based on four pairs of opposing preferences:

1. Favorite World: Extraversion (E) vs. Introversion (I)

• Extraversion: Gets energy from active involvement in events and having a lot of different activities. Directs energy outward.
• Introversion: Gets energy from ideas, pictures, and memories. Directs energy inward.

2. Information: Sensing (S) vs. Intuition (N)

• Sensing: Pays attention to physical reality, what I see, hear, touch, taste, and smell. Concerned with the present and practical facts.
• Intuition: Pays attention to impressions or the meanings and patterns of the information. Thinks about the future and abstract theories.

3. Decisions: Thinking (T) vs. Feeling (F)

• Thinking: Makes decisions based on logic, objective analysis, and cause-and-effect. Values consistency and truth.
• Feeling: Makes decisions based on values and person-centered concerns. Values harmony and tact.

4. Structure: Judging (J) vs. Perceiving (P)

• Judging: Prefers a planned or organized approach to life. Likes to have things settled and decided.
• Perceiving: Prefers a flexible and spontaneous approach. Likes to keep options open.

The 16 Personality Types

Combining these letters creates a 4-letter code (e.g., INTJ, ESFP). Each type implies a unique set of behavioral tendencies, strengths, and potential weaknesses.

6. Type A and Type B Behavior Patterns

Cardiologists Meyer Friedman and Ray Rosenman developed this theory in the 1950s while researching the relationship between personality and coronary heart disease.

Type A Behavior Pattern

Type A individuals are characterized by intense ambition, competition, and time urgency.

• Key Characteristics:
  • Time Urgency: Always rushing, multi-tasking, impatient with delays ("Hurry Sickness").
  • Competitiveness: Viewing life as a contest; highly achievement-oriented.
  • Hostility/Aggression: Easily irritated, short temper, free-floating hostility.
• Health Implication: Originally linked to a much higher risk of heart disease and high blood pressure (specifically the "hostility" component).

Type B Behavior Pattern

Type B individuals are essentially the opposite of Type A.

• Key Characteristics:
  • Relaxed: Experience lower levels of stress and work steadily rather than frantically.
  • Patient: Does not mind waiting; rarely feels a sense of time urgency.
  • Easy-going: Tolerant, flexible, and generally satisfied.
  • Creative: Often associated with creativity and reflective thinking.
• Health Implication: Generally lower risk of stress-related illnesses compared to Type A.

(Note on Type C and D)

While not requested, students should note later additions:

• Type C: Detail-oriented but suppresses emotion (linked to cancer risk).
• Type D: Distressed, negative, socially inhibited (linked to depression and heart issues).